View source for Essentials of Understanding Psychology 13e by Feldman

[[Essentials of Understanding Psychology 13e by Feldman]] is the 13th edition of the ''Essentials of Understanding Psychology'' textbook authored by Robert S. Feldman, University of Massachusetts Amherst, and published by McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY in 2019.

*[[Abnormal behavior]]. Behavior that causes people to experience distress and prevents them from functioning in their daily lives.
*[[Absolute threshold]]. The smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for the stimulus to be detected.
*[[Action potential]]. An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron's axon when it is set off by a "trigger," changing the neuron's charge from negative to positive.
*[[Activation-synthesis theory]]. Hobson's theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain.
*[[Activity theory of aging]]. The theory that suggests that successful aging is characterized by maintaining the interests and activities of earlier stages of life.
*[[Adaptation]]. An adjustment in sensory capacity after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli.
*[[Addictive drugs]]. Drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user so that withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that, in some cases, may be nearly irresistible.
*[[Adolescence]]. The developmental stage between childhood and adulthood.
*[[Age of viability]]. The point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely.
*[[Aggression]]. The intentional injury of, or harm to, another person.
*[[Algorithm]]. A rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem.
*[[All-or-none law]]. The rule that neurons are either on or off.
*[[Altruism]]. Behavior meant to help another person without regard for self-interest.
*[[Alzheimer's disease]]. A progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities.
*[[Amnesia]]. Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties.
*[[Anal stage]]. According to Freud, a stage from age 12 to 18 months to 3 years of age, in which a child's pleasure is centered on the anus.
*[[Androgens]]. Male sex hormones secreted by the testes.
*[[Anorexia nervosa]]. A severe eating disorder in which people may refuse to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance -- which can become skeleton- like -- are unusual.
*[[Anterograde amnesia]]. Amnesia in which memory is lost for events that follow an injury.
*[[Antianxiety drugs]]. Drugs that reduce the level of anxiety a person experiences essentially by reducing excitability and increasing feelings of well-being.
*[[Antidepressant drugs]]. Medications that improve a severely depressed patient's mood and feeling of well-being.
*[[Antipsychotic drugs]]. Drugs that temporarily reduce psychotic symptoms such as agitation, hallucinations, and delusions.
*[[Antisocial personality disorder]]. A disorder in which individuals show no regard for the moral and ethical rules of society or the rights of others.
*[[Anxiety disorder]]. The occurrence of anxiety without an obvious external cause that affects daily functioning.
*[[Archetypes]]. According to Jung, universal symbolic representations of particular types of people, objects, ideas, or experiences.
*[[Archival research]]. Research in which existing data, such as census documents, college records, and newspaper articles, are examined to test a hypothesis.
*[[Arousal approaches to motivation]]. The belief that we try to maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity.
*[[Association areas ]]. One of the major regions of the cerebral cortex; the site of the higher mental processes, such as thought, language, memory, and speech.
*[[Assumed-similarity bias]]. The tendency to think of people as being similar to oneself even when meeting them for the first time.
*[[Attachment]]. The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual.
*[[Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] ([[ADHD]]). A disorder marked by inattention, impulsiveness, a low tolerance for frustration, and a great deal of inappropriate activity.
*[[Attitudes]]. Evaluations of people, objects, ideas, and behavior.
*[[Attribution theory]]. The theory that considers how we decide, on the basis of samples of a person's behavior, what the specific causes of that behavior are.
*[[Authoritarian parents]]. Parents who are rigid and punitive and value unquestioning obedience from their children.
*[[Authoritative parents]]. Parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them.
*[[Autism]]. A severe developmental disability that impairs children's ability to communicate and relate to others.
*[[Autobiographical memory]]. Our recollections of our own life experiences.
*[[Autonomic division]]. The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary movement of the heart, glands, lungs, and other organs.
*[[Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage]]. The period during which, according to Erikson, toddlers (ages 1½ to 3 years) develop independence and autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected.
*[[Aversive conditioning]]. A form of therapy that reduces the frequency of undesired behavior by pairing an aversive, unpleasant stimulus with undesired behavior.
*[[Axon]]. The part of the neuron that carries messages destined for other neurons.
*[[Babble]]. Meaningless speechlike sounds made by children from around the age of 3 months through 1 year.
*[[Background stressors]] ([[daily hassle|"daily hassles"]]). Everyday annoyances, such as being stuck in traffic, that cause minor irritations and may have long-term ill effects if they continue or are compounded by other stressful events.
*[[Basilar membrane]]. A vibrating structure that runs through the center of the cochlea, dividing it into an upper chamber and a lower chamber and containing sense receptors for sound.
*[[Behavior modification]]. A technique whose goal is to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors and decrease the incidence of unwanted ones.
*[[Behavioral assessment]]. Direct measures of an individual's behavior used to describe personality characteristics.
*[[Behavioral genetics]]. The study of the effects of heredity on behavior.
*[[Behavioral neuroscientists]] (or [[biopsychologist]]s). Psychologists who specialize in considering the ways in which the biological structures and functions of the body affect behavior.
*[[Behavioral perspective]]. The approach that suggests that observable, external behavior, which can be objectively measured, should be the focus of study.
*[[Behavioral treatment approaches]]. Treatment approaches that make use of the basic processes of learning, such as reinforcement and extinction, to reduce or eliminate maladaptive behavior.
*[[Biofeedback]]. A procedure in which a person learns to control through conscious thought internal physiological processes such as blood pressure, heart and respiration rate, skin temperature, sweating, and the constriction of particular muscles.
*[[Biological and evolutionary approaches to personality]]. Theories that suggest that important components of personality are inherited.
*[[Biomedical therapy]]. Therapy that relies on drugs and other medical procedures to improve psychological functioning.
*[[Bipolar disorder]]. A disorder in which a person alternates between periods of euphoric feelings of mania and periods of depression.
*[[Bisexuals]]. Persons who are sexually attracted to people of the same sex and the other sex.
*[[Borderline personality disorder]]. A disorder characterized by problems regulating emotions and thoughts, displaying impulsive and reckless behavior, and having unstable relationships with others.
*[[Bottom-up processing]]. Perception that consists of the progression of recognizing and processing information from individual components of a stimuli and moving to the perception of the whole.
*[[Bulimia]]. A disorder in which a person binges on large quantities of food, followed by efforts to purge the food through vomiting or other means.
*[[Cannon-Bard theory of emotion]]. The belief that both physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus.
*[[Case study]]. An in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people.
*[[Cataclysmic events]]. Strong stressors that occur suddenly and typically affect many people at once (e.g., natural disasters).
*[[Catharsis]]. The process of discharging built-up aggressive energy.
*[[Central core]]. The "old brain," which controls basic functions such as eating and sleeping and is common to all vertebrates.
*[[Central nervous system]] ([[CNS]]). The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord.
*[[Central route processing]]. The type of mental processing that occurs when a persuasive message is evaluated by thoughtful consideration of the issues and arguments used to persuade.
*[[Central traits]]. The major traits considered in forming impressions of others.
*[[Cerebellum]] (ser-uh-BELL-um). The part of the brain that controls bodily balance.
*[[Cerebral cortex]]. The "new brain," responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain; contains four lobes.
*[[Chromosomes]]. Rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information.
*[[Chunk]]. A group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit in short-term memory.
*[[Circadian rhythms]]. Biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle.
*[[Classical conditioning]]. A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.
*[[Cochlea]] (KOKE-lee-uh). A coiled tube in the ear filled with fluid that vibrates in response to sound.
*[[Cognitive approaches to motivation]]. Theories suggesting that motivation is a result of people's thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals.
*[[Cognitive development]]. The process by which a child's understanding of the world changes due to the child's age and experience.
*[[Cognitive dissonance]]. The mental conflict that occurs when a person holds two contradictory attitudes or thoughts (referred to as cognitions).
*[[Cognitive learning theory]]. An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning.
*[[Cognitive perspective]]. The approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world.
*[[Cognitive psychology]]. The branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, judging, and decision making.
*[[Cognitive treatment approaches]]. Treatment approaches that teach people to think in more adaptive ways by changing their dysfunctional cognitions about the world and themselves.
*[[Collective unconscious]]. According to Jung, an inherited set of ideas, feelings, images, and symbols that are shared with all humans because of our common ancestral past.
*[[Collectivism]]. An idea that the well-being of the group or society is more important than that of the individual.
*[[Community psychology]]. A branch of psychology that focuses on the prevention and minimization of psychological disorders in the community.
*[[Companionate love]]. The strong affection we have for those with whom our lives are deeply involved.
*[[Compliance]]. Behavior that occurs in response to direct social pressure.
*[[Compulsion]]. An irresistible urge to repeatedly carry out some act that seems strange and unreasonable.
*[[Concept]]. A mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people.
*[[Concrete operational stage]]. According to Piaget, the period from 7 to 12 years of age that is characterized by logical thought and a loss of egocentrism.
*[[Conditioned response]] ([[CR]]). A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell).
*[[Conditioned stimulus]] ([[CS]]). A once- neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus.
*[[Cones]]. Cone-shaped, light-sensitive receptor cells in the retina that are responsible for sharp focus and color perception, particularly in bright light.
*[[Confirmation bias]]. The tendency to seek out and weight more heavily information that supports one's initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or solutions.
*[[Conformity]]. A change in behavior or attitudes brought about by a desire to follow the beliefs or standards of other people.
*[[Consciousness]]. The awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings being experienced at a given moment.
*[[Constructive processes]]. Processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events.
*[[Continuous reinforcement schedule]]. A schedule in which behavior is reinforced every time the behavior occurs.
*[[Control group]]. A group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment.
*[[Convergent thinking]]. Thinking in which a problem is viewed as having a single answer and which produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic.
*[[Conversion disorder]]. A major somatic symptom disorder that involves an actual physical disturbance, such as the inability to use a sensory organ or the complete or partial inability to move an arm or leg.
*[[Coping]]. The efforts to control, reduce, or learn to tolerate the threats that lead to stress.
*[[Correlational research]]. Research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated, or "correlated."
*[[Creativity]]. The ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways.
*[[Cross-cutting relations]]. The links between groups in the areas of work, education, and recreation.
*[[Cross-sectional research]]. A research method that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.
*[[Crystallized intelligence]]. The accumulation of information, knowledge, and skills that people have learned through experience and education.
*[[Cue-dependent forgetting]]. Forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory.
*[[Culture]]. The learned behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes that characterize an individual society or population.
*[[Culture-fair IQ test]]. A test trial that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group.
*[[Daydreams]]. Fantasies that people construct while awake.
*[[Decay]]. The loss of information in memory through its nonuse.
*[[Declarative memory]]. Memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like.
*[[Defense mechanisms]]. In Freudian theory, unconscious strategies that people use to reduce anxiety by distorting reality and concealing the source of the anxiety from themselves.
*[[Deinstitutionalization]]. The transfer of former mental patients from institutions to the community.
*[[Dendrite]]. A cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron that receives messages from other neurons.
*[[Dependent variable]]. The variable that is measured in an experiment. It is expected to change as a result of the experimenter's manipulation of the independent variable.
*[[Depressants]]. Drugs that slow down the nervous system.
*[[Depth perception]]. The ability to view the world in three dimensions and to perceive distance.
*[[Determinism]]. The idea that people's behavior is produced primarily by factors outside of their willful control.
*[[Developmental psychology]]. The branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life.
*[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition]] ([[DSM-5]]). A system, devised by the American Psychiatric Association, used by most professionals to classify and define psychological disorders.
*[[Difference threshold]] (just [[noticeable difference]]). The smallest level of added or reduced stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred.
*[[Diffusion of responsibility]]. The belief that responsibility for intervening is shared, or diffused, among those present.
*[[Discrimination]]. Behavior directed toward individuals on the basis of their membership in a particular group.
*[[Disengagement theory of aging]]. The theory that suggests that successful aging is characterized by a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels.
*[[Dispositional causes]] ([[Dispositional cause of behavior|of behavior]]). Perceived causes of behavior brought about by a person's traits or personality characteristics.
*[[Dissociative amnesia]]. A disorder in which a significant, selective memory loss occurs.
*[[Dissociative disorders]]. Psychological dysfunctions characterized by the separation of different facets of a person's personality that are normally integrated.
*[[Dissociative fugue]]. A form of amnesia in which a person leaves home and assumes a new identity.
*[[Dissociative identity disorder]] ([[DID]]). A disorder in which a person displays characteristics of two or more distinct personalities.
*[[Divergent thinking]]. Thinking that generates unusual, yet nonetheless appropriate, responses to problems or questions.
*[[Double standard]]. The view that premarital sex is permissible for males but not for females.
*[[Dreams-for-survival theory]]. The theory suggesting that dreams permit information that is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep.
*[[Drive]]. Motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need.
*[[Drive-reduction approaches to motivation]]. Theories suggesting that a lack of some basic biological need produces a drive to push an organism to satisfy that need.
*[[Drug therapy]]. Treatment of psychological disorders through the use of drugs.
*[[Eardrum]]. The part of the ear that vibrates when sound waves hit it.
*[[Ego]]. The part of personality that attempts to balance the desires of the id and the realities of the objective, outside world.
*[[Ego-integrity-versus-despair stage]]. According to Erikson, a period from late adulthood until death during which we review life's accomplishments and failures.
*[[Egocentric thought]]. A way of thinking in which a child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective.
*[[Electroconvulsive therapy]] ([[ECT]]). A procedure used in the treatment of severe depression in which an electric current of 70-150 volts is briefly administered to a patient's head.
*[[Embryo]]. A developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs.
*[[Emerging adulthood]]. The period beginning in the late teenage years and extending into the mid-20s.
*[[Emotional intelligence]]. The set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions.
*[[Emotions]]. Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior.
*[[Endocrine system]]. A chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream.
*[[Episodic memory]]. Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context.
*[[Estrogens]]. Class of female sex hormones.
*[[Ethnicity]]. Shared national origins or cultural patterns.
*[[Evolutionary psychology]]. The branch of psychology that seeks to identify behavior patterns that are a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors.
*[[Excitatory message]]. A chemical message that makes it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon.
*[[Experiment]]. The investigation of the relationship between two (or more) variables by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation.
*[[Experimental bias]]. Factors that distort how the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment.
*[[Experimental group]]. Any group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment.
*[[Experimental manipulation]]. The change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation.
*[[Explicit memory]]. Intentional or conscious recollection of information.
*[[Extinction]]. A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.
*[[Extramarital sex]]. Sexual activity between a married person and someone who is not his or her spouse.
*[[Facial-affect program]]. Activation of a set of nerve impulses that make the face display the appropriate expression.
*[[Facial-feedback hypothesis]]. The hypothesis that facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience but also help determine how people experience and label emotions.
*[[Familial intellectual disability]]. Intellectual disability in which no apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of intellectual disability in the family.
*[[Family therapy]]. An approach that focuses on the family and its dynamics.
*[[Feature detector]]. Specialized neurons that are activated only by visual stimuli having specific features, such as a particular shape or pattern.
*[[Fetal alcohol syndrome]]. The most common cause of intellectual disability in newborns, occurring when the mother uses alcohol during pregnancy.
*[[Fetus]]. A developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth.
*[[Fixations]]. Conflicts or concerns that persist beyond the developmental period in which they first occur.
*[[Fixed-interval schedule]]. A schedule in which reinforcement is provided for a response only after a fixed time period has elapsed.
*[[Fixed-ratio schedule]]. A schedule in which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made.
*[[Flashbulb memories]]. Memories of a specific, important, or surprising emotionally significant event that are recalled easily and with vivid imagery.
*[[Flooding]]. A behavioral treatment for anxiety in which people are suddenly confronted with a stimulus that they fear.
*[[Fluid intelligence]]. Intelligence that reflects the ability to think logically, reason abstractly, and solve problems.
*[[Formal operational stage]]. According to Piaget, the period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract thought.
*[[Free will]]. The idea that behavior is caused primarily by choices that are made freely by the individual.
*[[Frequency theory of hearing]]. The theory that the entire basilar membrane acts like a microphone, vibrating as a whole in response to a sound.
*[[Functional fixedness]]. The tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use.
*[[Functionalism]]. An early approach to psychology that concentrated on what the mind does -- the functions of mental activity -- and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments.
*[[Fundamental attribution error]]. A tendency to overattribute others' behavior to dispositional causes and minimize the importance of situational causes.
*[[G or g-factor]]. The single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence.
*[[Gate-control theory of pain]]. The theory that particular nerve receptors in the spinal cord lead to specific areas of the brain related to pain.
*[[General adaptation syndrome]] ([[GAS]]). A theory developed by Selye that suggests that a person's response to a stressor consists of three stages: alarm and mobilization, resistance, and exhaustion.
*[[Generalized anxiety disorder]]. The experience of long-term, persistent anxiety and worry.
*[[Generativity-versus-stagnation stage]]. According to Erikson, a period in middle adulthood during which we take stock of our contributions to family and society.
*[[Genes]]. The parts of the chromosomes through which genetic information is transmitted.
*[[Genetic preprogramming theories of aging]]. Theories that suggest that human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction and that they are no longer able to divide after a certain time.
*[[Genital stage]]. According to Freud, the period from puberty until death, marked by mature sexual behavior (that is, sexual intercourse).
*[[Genitals]]. The male and female sex organs.
*[[Gestalt laws of organization]] (geh-SHTALLT). A series of principles that describe how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
*[[Gestalt psychology]]. An approach to psychology that focuses on the organization of perception and thinking in a "whole" sense rather than on the individual elements of perception.
*[[Grammar]]. The system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed.
*[[Group]]. Two or more people who interact with one another, perceive themselves as part of a group, and are interdependent.
*[[Group therapy]]. Therapy in which people meet in a group with a therapist to discuss problems.
*[[Groupthink]]. A type of thinking in which group members share such a strong motivation to achieve consensus that they lose the ability to critically evaluate alternative points of view.
*[[Habituation]]. The decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus.
*[[Hair cells]]. Tiny cells covering the basilar membrane that, when bent by vibrations entering the cochlea, transmit neural messages to the brain.
*[[Hallucinogen]]. Drugs that are capable of producing alterations in perception, thoughts, and feelings.
*[[Halo effect]]. A phenomenon in which an initial understanding that a person has positive or negative traits is used to infer other uniformly positive or negative characteristics.
*[[Hardiness]]. A personality trait characterized by a sense of commitment, the perception of problems as challenges, and a sense of control.
*[[Health psychology]]. The branch of psychology that investigates the psychological factors related to wellness and illness, including the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of medical problems.
*[[Hemispheres]]. Symmetrical left and right halves of the brain that control the side of the body opposite to their location.
*[[Heritability]]. The degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors.
*[[Heterosexuality]]. Sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex.
*[[Heuristic]]. A thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or decision but -- unlike algorithms -- may sometimes lead to errors.
*[[Homeostasis]]. The body's tendency to maintain a steady internal state.
*[[Homosexuals]]. Persons who are sexually attracted to members of their own sex.
*[[Hormones]]. Chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body.
*[[Humanistic approaches to personality]]. Theories that emphasize people's innate goodness and desire to achieve higher levels of functioning.
*[[Humanistic perspective]]. The approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior.
*[[Humanistic therapy]]. Therapy in which the underlying rationale is that people have control of their behavior, can make choices about their lives, and are essentially responsible for solving their own problems.
*[[Hypnosis]]. A trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others.
*[[Hypothalamus]]. A tiny part of the brain, located below the thalamus, that maintains homeostasis and produces and regulates vital behavior, such as eating, drinking, and sexual behavior.
*[[Hypothesis]]. A prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in a way that allows it to be tested.
*[[Id]]. The instinctual and unorganized part of personality whose sole purpose is to reduce tension created by primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses.
*[[Identical twins]]. Twins who are genetically identical.
*[[Identification]]. The process of wanting to be like another person as much as possible, imitating that person's behavior and adopting similar beliefs and values.
*[[Identity]]. The distinguishing character of the individual: who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of.
*[[Identity-versus-role-confusion stage]]. According to Erikson, a time in adolescence of major testing to determine one's unique qualities.
*[[Illness anxiety disorder]]. A disorder in which people have a constant fear of illness and a preoccupation with their health.
*[[Implicit memory]]. Memories of which people are not consciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behavior.
*[[Incentive approaches to motivation]]. Theories suggesting that motivation stems from the desire to attain external rewards, known as incentives.
*[[Independent]] ([[Independent view of self|view of self]]). To view oneself as behaving independently, competing rather than cooperating with others.
*[[Independent variable]]. The variable that is manipulated by an experimenter.
*[[Individualism]]. The idea that holds as a primary value the personal identity, uniqueness, freedom, and worth of the individual person.
*[[Industrial-organizational psychology]] ([[I/O psychology]]). The branch of psychology focusing on work- and job-related issues, including worker motivation, satisfaction, safety, and productivity.
*[[Industry-versus-inferiority stage]]. According to Erikson, the last stage of childhood, during which children age 6 to 12 years may develop positive social interactions with others or may feel inadequate and become less sociable.
*[[Information processing]]. The way in which people take in, use, and store information.
*[[Informed consent]]. A document signed by participants affirming that they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve.
*[[Inhibitory message]]. A chemical message that prevents or decreases the likelihood that a receiving neuron will fire.
*[[Initiative-versus-guilt stage]]. According to Erikson, the period during which children ages 3 to 6 years experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action.
*[[Insight]]. A sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another.
*[[Instinct approaches to motivation]]. Theories suggesting that motivation stems from the desire to attain external rewards, known as incentives.
*[[Instincts]]. Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned.
*[[Intellectual disability]]. A condition characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills.
*[[Intellectually gifted]]. The 2-4% segment of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130.
*[[Intelligence]]. The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges.
*[[Intelligence quotient]] ([[IQ]]). A score that takes into account an individual's mental and chronological ages.
*[[Intelligence tests]]. Tests devised to quantify a person's level of intelligence.
*[[Interactionist approach]] ([[Interactionist approach to language development|to language development]]). The view that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language.
*[[Interdependent]] ([[view of self]]). To view oneself as a member of a larger society, working together with others to achieve social harmony.
*[[Interference]]. The phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information.
*[[Interpersonal attraction]] (or [[close relationship]]). Positive feelings for others; liking and loving.
*[[Interpersonal therapy]] ([[IPT]]). Short-term therapy that focuses on the context of current social relationships, helping patients to control their moods and emotions.
*[[Intimacy-versus-isolation stage]]. According to Erikson, a period during early adulthood that focuses on developing close relationships.
*[[Introspection]]. A procedure in which people are presented with a stimulus --  such as an image or sentence -- and asked to describe, in their own words and in as much detail as they can, what they were experiencing.
*[[James-Lange theory of emotion]]. The belief that emotional experience is a reaction to bodily events occurring as a result of an external situation ("I feel sad because I am crying").
*[[Korsakoff's syndrome]]. A disease that afflicts long-term alcoholics, leaving some abilities intact but including hallucinations and a tendency to repeat the same story.
*[[Language]]. The communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules.
*[[Latency period]]. According to Freud, the period between the phallic stage and puberty during which children's sexual concerns are temporarily put aside.
*[[Latent learning]]. Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it.
*[[Lateralization]]. The dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in specific functions, such as language.
*[[Learned helplessness]]. A state in which people conclude that unpleasant or aversive stimuli cannot be controlled -- a view of the world that becomes so ingrained that they cease trying to remedy the aversive circumstances even if they actually can exert some influence on the situation.
*[[Learning]]. A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience.
*[[Learning-theory approach]] ([[Learning-theory approach to language development|to language development]]). The theory that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning.
*[[Levels-of-processing theory]]. The theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed.
*[[Life review]]. The process by which people examine and evaluate their lives.
*[[Limbic system]]. The part of the brain that controls eating, aggression, and reproduction.
*[[Linguistic-relativity hypothesis]]. The hypothesis that language shapes and may determine the way people perceive and understand the world.
*[[Lobes]]. The four major sections of the cerebral cortex: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.
*[[Long-term memory]]. Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve.
*[[Longitudinal research]]. A research method that investigates behavior as participants get older.
*[[Major depressive disorder]]. A severe form of depression that interferes with concentration, decision making, and sociability.
*[[Mania]]. An extended state of intense, wild elation.
*[[Masturbation]]. Sexual self-stimulation.
*[[Means-ends analysis]]. Involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists.
*[[Medical perspective]]. The perspective that suggests that when an individual displays symptoms of abnormal behavior, the root cause will be found in a physical examination of the individual, which may reveal a hormonal imbalance, a chemical deficiency, or a brain injury.
*[[Meditation]]. A learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness.
*[[Memory]]. The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information.
*[[Menopause]]. The period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile.
*[[Mental age]]. The age for which a given level of performance is average or typical.
*[[Mental images]]. Representations in the mind of an object or event.
*[[Mental set]]. A framework for thinking about a problem based on our prior experience with similar problems.
*[[Metabolism]]. The rate at which food is converted to energy and expended by the body.
*[[Metacognition]]. An awareness and understanding of one's own cognitive processes.
*[[Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form]] ([[MMPI-2-RF]]). A widely used self-report test that identifies people with psychological difficulties and is employed to predict some everyday behaviors.
*[[Mirror neurons]]. Specialized neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a particular behavior, but also when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior.
*[[Mood disorder]]. A disturbance in emotional experience that is strong enough to intrude on everyday living.
*[[Mood stabilizers]]. Drugs used to treat mood disorders characterized by intense mood swings, especially manic episodes in bipolar disorder.
*[[Motivation]]. The factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms.
*[[Motor neurons]] ([[efferen neuron]]s). Neurons that communicate information from the brain and nervous system to muscles and glands.
*[[Motor area]]. The part of the cortex that is largely responsible for the body's voluntary movement.
*[[Multiculturalism]]. The view that members of all cultures deserve equal respect and that their contributions to society should be recognized.
*[[Myelin sheath]]. A protective coat of fat and protein that wraps around the axon.
*[[Narcissistic personality disorder]]. A personality disturbance characterized by an exaggerated sense of self-importance.
*[[Narcotics]]. Drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety.
*[[Nativist approach]] ([[Nativist approach to language development|to language development]]). The theory that humans are biologically prewired to learn language at certain times and in particular ways.
*[[Naturalistic observation]]. Research in which an investigator simply observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation.
*[[Nature-nurture issue]]. The issue of the degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior.
*[[Need for achievement]]. A stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for and achieving challenging goals.
*[[Need for affiliation]]. An interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people.
*[[Need for power]]. A tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others and to be seen as a powerful individual.
*[[Negative reinforcer]]. An unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future.
*[[Neo-Freudian psychoanalysts]]. Psychoanalysts who were trained in traditional Freudian theory but who later rejected some of its major points.
*[[Neonate]]. A newborn child.
*[[Neurons]]. Nerve cells, the basic elements of the nervous system.
*[[Neuroplasticity]]. Changes in the brain that occur throughout the life span relating to the addition of new neurons, new interconnections between neurons, and the reorganization of information-processing areas.
*[[Neuroscience perspective]]. The approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions.
*[[Neurotransmitters]]. Chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to the dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiver neuron.
*[[Neutral stimulus]]. A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.
*[[Norms]]. Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person's score on a test with the scores of other individuals who have taken the same test.
*[[Obedience]]. A change in behavior in response to the commands of others.
*[[Obesity]]. Body weight that is more than 20% above the average weight for a person of a particular height.
*[[Object permanence]]. The awareness that objects -- and people -- continue to exist even if they are out of sight.
*[[Observational learning]]. Learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model.
*[[Obsession]]. A persistent, unwanted thought or idea that keeps recurring.
*[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]] ([[OCD]]). A disorder characterized by obsessions or compulsions.
*[[Oedipal conflict]]. A child's intense, sexual interest in his or her opposite-sex parent.
*[[Operant conditioning]]. Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.
*[[Operational definition]]. The translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed.
*[[Opponent-process theory of color vision]]. The theory that receptor cells for color are linked in pairs, working in opposition to each other.
*[[Optic nerve]]. A bundle of ganglion axons that carry visual information to the brain.
*[[Oral stage]]. According to Freud, a stage from birth to age 12 to 18 months, in which an infant's center of pleasure is the mouth.
*[[Overgeneralization]]. The phenomenon by which children overapply a language rule, thereby making linguistic errors.
*[[Ovulation]]. The point at which an egg is released from the ovaries.
*[[Panic disorder]]. Anxiety disorder that takes the form of panic attacks lasting from a few seconds to several hours.
*[[Parasympathetic division]]. The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to calm the body after an emergency has ended.
*[[Partial reinforcement schedule]] (or [[intermittent reinforcement schedule]]). Reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time.
*[[Passionate love]] (or [[romantic love]]). A state of intense absorption in someone that includes intense physiological arousal, psychological interest, and caring for the needs of another.
*[[Perception]]. The sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli by the sense organs and brain.
*[[Perceptual constancy]]. Our understanding that physical objects are unvarying and consistent even though sensory input about them may vary.
*[[Peripheral nervous system]]. The part of the nervous system that includes the autonomic and somatic subdivisions; made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, it branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body.
*[[Peripheral route processing]]. The type of mental processing that occurs when a persuasive message is evaluated on the basis of irrelevant or extraneous factors.
*[[Permissive parents]]. Parents who give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction and, although they are warm, require little of them.
*[[Person-centered therapy]]. Therapy in which the goal is to reach one's potential for self-actualization.
*[[Personal stressors]]. Major life events, such as the death of a family member, that have immediate negative consequences that generally fade with time.
*[[Personality]]. The pattern of enduring characteristics that produce consistency and individuality in a given person.
*[[Personality disorder]]. A disorder characterized by a set of inflexible, maladaptive behavior patterns that keep a person from functioning appropriately in society.
*[[Phallic stage]]. According to Freud, a period beginning around age 3 during which a child's pleasure focuses on the genitals.
*[[Phonemes]]. The smallest units of speech.
*[[Phonology]]. The study of the smallest units of speech, called phonemes.
*[[Pituitary gland]]. The major component of the endocrine system, or "master gland," which secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of the endocrine system.
*[[Place theory of hearing]]. The theory that different areas of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies.
*[[Placebo]]. A false treatment, such as a pill, "drug," or other substance, without any significant chemical properties or active ingredient.
*[[Positive reinforcer]]. A stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response.
*[[Posttraumatic stress disorder]] ([[PTSD]]). A phenomenon in which victims of major catastrophes or strong personal stressors feel long-lasting effects that may include re-experiencing the event in vivid flashbacks or dreams.
*[[Practical intelligence]]. According to Sternberg, intelligence related to overall success in living.
*[[Prejudice]]. A negative (or positive) evaluation of a particular group and its members.
*[[Preoperational stage]]. According to Piaget, the period from 2 to 7 years of age that is characterized by language development.
*[[Priming]]. A phenomenon that occurs when exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall information related to the prime.
*[[Principle of conservation]]. The knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects.
*[[Proactive interference]]. Interference in which information learned earlier disrupts the recall of material learned later.
*[[Procedural memory]]. Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball; sometimes referred to as nondeclarative memory.
*[[Projective personality test]]. A test in which a person is shown an ambiguous stimulus and asked to describe it or tell a story about it.
*[[Prosocial behavior]]. Helping behavior.
*[[Prototypes]]. Typical, highly representative examples of a concept.
*[[Prozac]]. A widely prescribed -- but still controversial -- antidepressant.
*[[Psychoactive drugs]]. Drugs that influence a person's emotions, perceptions, and behavior.
*[[Psychoanalysis]]. Freud's psychotherapy in which the goal is to release hidden thoughts and feelings from the unconscious part of our minds in order to reduce their power in controlling behavior.
*[[Psychoanalytic perspective]]. The perspective that suggests that abnormal behavior stems from childhood conflicts over opposing wishes regarding sex and aggression.
*[[Psychoanalytic theory]]. Freud's theory that unconscious forces act as determinants of personality.
*[[Psychodynamic approaches to personality]]. Approaches that assume that personality is primarily unconscious and motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which people have little awareness.
*[[Psychodynamic perspective]]. The approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control.
*[[Psychodynamic therapy]]. Therapy that seeks to bring unresolved past conflicts and unacceptable impulses from the unconscious into the conscious, where patients may deal with the problems more effectively.
*[[Psychological tests]]. Standard measures devised to assess behavior objectively; used by psychologists to help people make decisions about their lives and understand more about themselves.
*[[Psychology]]. The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
*[[Psychoneuroimmunology]] ([[PNI]]). The study of the relationship among psychological factors, the immune system, and the brain.
*[[Psychophysics]]. The study of the relationship between the physical aspects of stimuli and our psychological experience of them.
*[[Psychophysiological disorders]]. Medical problems influenced by an interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties.
*[[Psychosexual stages]]. Developmental periods that children pass through during which they encounter conflicts between the demands of society and their own sexual urges.
*[[Psychosocial development]]. Development of individuals' interactions and understanding of each other and of their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society.
*[[Psychosurgery]]. Brain surgery once used to reduce the symptoms of mental disorder but rarely used today.
*[[Psychotherapy]]. Treatment in which a trained professional -- a therapist -- uses psychological techniques to help a person overcome psychological difficulties and disorders, resolve problems in living, or bring about personal growth.
*[[Puberty]]. The period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11 or 12 for girls and 13 or 14 for boys.
*[[Punishment]]. A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again.
*[[Race]]. Generally refers to obvious physical differences that set one group apart from others.
*[[Random assignment to condition]]. A procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental groups or "conditions" on the basis of chance and chance alone.
*[[Rapid eye movement sleep]] ([[REM sleep]]). Sleep occupying 20% of an adult's sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections; eye movements; and the experience of dreaming.
*[[Rational-emotive behavior therapy]]. A form of therapy that attempts to restructure a person's belief system into a more realistic, rational, and logical set of views by challenging dysfunctional beliefs that maintain irrational behavior.
*[[Realistic conflict theory]]. The theory that conflict arises from direct competition over-valued, but limited, resources.
*[[Recall]]. Memory task in which specific information must be retrieved.
*[[Reciprocity-of-liking effect]]. A tendency to like those who like us.
*[[Recognition]]. Memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives.
*[[Reflex]]. An automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus.
*[[Reflexes]]. Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli.
*[[Rehearsal]]. The repetition of information that has entered short-term memory.
*[[Reinforcement]]. The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.
*[[Reinforcer]]. Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again.
*[[Relative deprivation]]. The sense that one lacks a desired resource in comparison to another group, which is perceived to have more.
*[[Reliability]]. The property by which tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure.
*[[Replicated research]]. Research that is repeated, sometimes using other procedures, settings, and groups of participants, to increase confidence in prior findings.
*[[Repression]]. The defense mechanism in which the ego pushes unacceptable or unpleasant thoughts and impulses out of consciousness but maintains them in the unconscious.
*[[Resilience]]. The ability to withstand, overcome, and actually thrive after profound adversity.
*[[Resting state]]. The state in which there is a negative electrical charge of about −70 millivolts within a neuron.
*[[Reticular formation]]. The part of the brain extending from the medulla through the pons; it is related to changes in the level of arousal of the body.
*[[Retina]]. The part of the eye that converts the electromagnetic energy of light to electrical impulses for transmission to the brain.
*[[Retroactive interference]]. Interference in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier.
*[[Retrograde amnesia]]. Amnesia in which memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event, but not for new events.
*[[Reuptake]]. The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal button.
*[[Rods]]. Thin, cylindrical receptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light.
*[[Rorschach test]]. A test that involves showing a series of symmetrical visual stimuli to people who then are asked what the figures represent to them.
*[[Schachter-Singer theory of emotion]]. The belief that emotions are determined jointly by a nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation, based on environmental cues.
*[[Schedules of reinforcement]]. Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior.
*[[Schemas]]. Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled.
*[[Schizophrenia]]. A class of disorders in which severe distortion of reality occurs.
*[[Scientific method]]. The approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest.
*[[Self]]. The way in which we look inward and define ourselves as individuals.
*[[Self-actualization]]. A state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential in their own unique way.
*[[Self-efficacy]]. The belief that we can master a situation and produce positive outcomes.
*[[Self-esteem]]. The component of personality that encompasses our positive and negative self-evaluations.
*[[Self-report measures]]. A method of gathering data about people by asking them questions about their own behavior and traits.
*[[Self-serving bias]]. The tendency to attribute personal success to personal factors (skill, ability, or effort) and to attribute failure to factors outside oneself.
*[[Semantic memory]]. Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts.
*[[Semantic networks]]. Mental representations of clusters of interconnected information.
*[[Semantics]]. The meaning of words and sentences.
*[[Semicircular canals]]. Three tube-like structures of the inner ear containing fluid that sloshes through them when the head moves, signaling rotational or angular movement to the brain.
*[[Sensation]]. The activation of the sense organs by a source of physical energy.
*[[Sensorimotor stage]]. According to Piaget, the stage from birth to 2 years, during which a child has little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols.
*[[Sensory neurons]] ([[afferent neuron]]s). Neurons that transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the nervous system and brain.
*[[Sensory area]]. The site in the brain of the tissue that corresponds to each of the senses, with the degree of sensitivity related to the amount of tissue.
*[[Sensory memory]]. The initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant.
*[[Shaping]]. The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
*[[Short-term memory]]. Memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds.
*[[Significant outcome]]. Meaningful results that make it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their hypotheses.
*[[Situational causes]] ([[Situational causes of behavior|of behavior]]). Causes of behavior that are external to a person.
*[[Skin senses]]. The senses of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
*[[Social cognition]]. The cognitive processes by which people understand and make sense of others and themselves.
*[[Social cognitive approaches to personality]]. Theories that emphasize the influence of a person's cognitions --  thoughts, feelings, expectations, and values -- as well as observation of others' behavior, in determining personality.
*[[Social influence]]. The process by which social groups and individuals exert pressure on an individual, either deliberately or unintentionally.
*[[Social neuroscience]]. The subfield of social psychology that seeks to identify the neurological basis of social behavior.
*[[Social psychology]]. The scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others.
*[[Social support]]. A mutual network of caring, interested others.
*[[Social supporter]]. A group member whose dissenting views make non-conformity to the group easier.
*[[Sociocultural perspective]]. The perspective that assumes that people's behavior -- both normal and abnormal -- is shaped by the kind of family group, society, and culture in which they live.
*[[Somatic division]]. The part of the peripheral nervous system that specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs.
*[[Somatic symptom disorders]]. Psychological difficulties that take on a physical (somatic) form, but for which there is no medical cause.
*[[Sound]]. The movement of air molecules brought about by a source of vibration.
*[[Specific phobia]]. Intense, irrational fears of specific objects or situations.
*[[Spinal cord]]. A bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back and is the main means for transmitting messages between the brain and the body.
*[[Spontaneous recovery]]. The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning.
*[[Spontaneous remission]]. Recovery without formal treatment.
*[[Stage 1 sleep]]. The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves.
*[[Stage 2 sleep]]. A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of "sleep spindles."
*[[Stage 3 sleep]]. A sleep characterized by slow brain waves, with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern than in stage 2 sleep.
*[[Status]]. The social standing of someone in a group.
*[[Stereotype]]. A set of generalized beliefs and expectations about a particular group and its members.
*[[Stimulants]]. Drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system, causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension.
*[[Stimulus]]. Energy that produces a response in a sense organ.
*[[Stimulus discrimination]]. The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between stimuli.
*[[Stimulus generalization]]. A process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response.
*[[Stress]]. A person's response to events that are threatening or challenging.
*[[Structuralism]]. Wundt's approach, which focuses on uncovering the fundamental mental components of consciousness, thinking, and other kinds of mental states and activities.
*[[Subjective well-being]]. People's sense of their happiness and satisfaction with their lives.
*[[Superego]]. The part of personality that harshly judges the morality of our behavior.
*[[Survey research]]. Research in which people chosen to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes.
*[[Sympathetic division]]. The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organism's resources to respond to a threat.
*[[Synapse]]. The space between two neurons where the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages.
*[[Syntax]]. Ways in which words and phrases can be combined to form sentences.
*[[Systematic desensitization]]. A behavioral technique based on classical conditioning in which exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus is paired with deep relaxation to extinguish the response of anxiety.
*[[Telegraphic speech]]. Sentences in which only essential words are used.
*[[Temperament]]. A basic, inborn characteristic way of responding and behavioral style.
*[[Teratogens]]. Environmental agents such as drugs, chemicals, viruses, or other factors that produce birth defects.
*[[Terminal buttons]]. Small bulges at the end of axons that send messages to other neurons.
*[[Test standardization]]. A technique used to validate questions in personality tests by studying the responses of people with known diagnoses.
*[[Thalamus]]. The part of the brain located in the middle of the central core that acts primarily to relay information about the senses.
*[[Thematic Apperception Test]] ([[TAT]]). A test consisting of a series of pictures about which a person is asked to write a story.
*[[Theories]]. Broad explanations and predictions concerning observations of interest.
*[[Theory of multiple intelligences]]. Gardner's intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence.
*[[Thinking]]. Brain activity in which people mentally manipulate information, including words, visual images, sounds, or other data.
*[[Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon]]. The inability to recall information that one realizes one knows -- a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory.
*[[Top-down processing]]. Perception that is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations.
*[[Trait theory]]. A model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality.
*[[Traits]]. Consistent, habitual personality characteristics and behaviors that are displayed across different situations.
*[[Transcranial magnetic stimulation]] ([[TMS]]). A depression treatment in which a precise magnetic pulse is directed to a specific area of the brain.
*[[Transference]]. The transfer of feelings to a psychoanalyst of love or anger that had been originally directed to a patient's parents or other authority figures.
*[[Transgender]]. An umbrella term for persons whose gender identity, gender expression, or behavior does not conform to that typically associated with the sex to which they were assigned at birth.
*[[Treatment]]. The manipulation implemented by the experimenter.
*[[Trichromatic theory of color vision]]. The theory that there are three kinds of cones in the retina, each of which responds primarily to a specific range of wavelengths.
*[[Trust-versus-mistrust stage]]. According to Erikson, the first stage of psychosocial development, occurring from birth to age 1½ years, during which time infants develop feelings of trust or lack of trust.
*[[Type A behavior pattern]]. A cluster of behaviors involving hostility, competitiveness, time urgency, and feeling driven.
*[[Type B behavior pattern]]. A cluster of behaviors characterized by a patient, cooperative, noncompetitive, and nonaggressive manner.
*[[Unconditional positive regard]]. An attitude of acceptance and respect on the part of an observer, no matter what a person says or does.
*[[Unconditioned response]] ([[UCR]]). A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food).
*[[Unconditioned stimulus]] ([[UCS]]). A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.
*[[Unconscious]]. A part of the personality that contains the memories, knowledge, beliefs, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts of which the individual is not aware.
*[[Unconscious wish fulfillment theory]]. Sigmund Freud's theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled.
*[[Uninvolved parents]]. Parents who show little interest in their children and are emotionally detached.
*[[Validity]]. The property by which tests actually measure what they are supposed to measure.
*[[Variable-interval schedule]]. A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed.
*[[Variable-ratio schedule]]. A schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number.
*[[Variables]]. Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way.
*[[Visual illusions]]. Physical stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception.
*[[Wear-and-tear theories of aging]]. Theories that suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently.
*[[Weber's law]]. A basic law of psychophysics stating that a just noticeable difference is a constant proportion to the intensity of an initial stimulus (rather than a constant amount).
*[[Weight set point]]. The particular level of weight that the body strives to maintain.
*[[Working memory]]. A memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information.
*[[Zone of proximal development]] ([[ZPD]]). According to Vygotsky, the gap between what children already are able to accomplish on their own and what they are not quite ready to do by themselves.
*[[Zygote]]. The new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm.

[[Category: Reference Books]]