View source for Social Rationale Quarter

[[Social Rationale Quarter]] (hereinafter, the ''Quarter'') is a lecture introducing the learners to [[social analysis]] primarily through key topics related to [[social rationale]]. The ''Quarter'' is the second of four lectures of [[Social Quadrivium]], which is the fifth of seven modules of '''[[Septem Artes Administrativi]]''' (hereinafter, the ''Course''). The ''Course'' is designed to introduce the learners to general concepts in [[business administration]], [[management]], and [[organizational behavior]].


==Outline==
''[[Communication Quarter]] is the predecessor lecture. In the [[enterprise analysis]] series, the previous lecture is [[Human Perceptions Quarter]].''

===Concepts===
#'''[[Social rationale]]'''. A set of reasons or a logical basis for a course of action or a particular belief of a [[group]] of people.
#*[[Institutions]]. Cultural factors that lead many organizations to have similar structures, especially those factors that might not lead to adaptive consequences.
#*[[File:Cohesiveness-and-norms.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Group cohesiveness|Cohesiveness]] and [[norm]]s]][[Group cohesiveness]] (also known as [[group cohesion]] or [[social cohesion]]). The extend to which members of a group support and validate one another, attracted and emotionally attached to one another, share the group's goals, and motivated toward the group.
#*[[Norm]]. An acceptable standard or expectation within a group that is accepted and shared by a group's members.
#'''[[Group]]'''. Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular goals.
#*[[Informal group]]. A group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined; such a group appears in response to the need for social contact.
#*[[Formal group]]. A designated workgroup defined by an organization's structure.
#*[[Interacting group]]. A typical group in which members interact with each other face to face.
#*[[Reference group]]. An important group to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform.
#*[[Ingroup favorism]]. Perspective in which one sees members of own [[ingroup]] as better than other people, and, often, people not in own group as all the same.
#'''[[Role]]'''. A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.
#*[[Role ambiguity]]. When role expectations are not clearly understood.
#*[[Role expectations]]. How others believe a person should act in a given situation.
#*[[Role overload]]. Having more work to accomplish than time permits.
#*[[Role perception]]. An individual's view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation.
#'''[[Status]]'''. A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.
#*[[Status characteristics theory]]. A theory that states that differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups.
#'''[[Social identity theory]]'''. Perspective that considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups.
#*[[Outgroup]] ([[out-group]]). (1) Those people who do not belong to a specific [[ingroup]]; the inverse of an [[ingroup]], which can mean everyone outside one's group; (2) An identified other group.
#*[[Ingroup]] ([[in-group]]). An exclusive, typically small, group of people with a shared interest or identity.
#*[[Faultiness]]. The perceived divisions that split groups into two or more subgroups based on individual differences such as sex, race, age, work experience, and education.
#*[[Boundary spanning]]. When individuals form relationships outside their formally assigned groups.
#'''[[Diversity]]'''. The extent to which members of a group are similar to, or different from, one another.
#*[[Deep-level diversity]]. Differences in values, personality, and work preferences that become more important for determining similarity as people get to know each other.
#*[[Discrimination]]. Noting of a difference between things; often we refer to [[unfair discrimination]], which means making judgments about individuals based on [[stereotype]]s regarding their demographic group. [[Unfair discrimination]] occurs when someone acts out their prejudicial attitudes toward people who are the targets of their prejudice.
#[[File:Diversity.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Surface-level diversity]]]]'''[[Surface-level diversity]]'''. Differences in easily perceived characteristics, such as gender, race, ethnicity, age, or disability, that do not necessarily reflect the ways people think or feel, but may activate or trigger certain [[stereotype]]s. 
#*[[Biographical characteristic]]. A quantifiable personal characteristic such as age, gender, income, education, socioeconomic status, family size, marital status, race, and length of tenure that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. These characteristics are [[indicator]]s of [[surface-level diversity]].
#*[[Race]]. The biological heritage (including skin color and associated traits) that people use to identify themselves.
#'''[[Cultural intelligence]]'''. Cultural awareness and sensitivity skills.
#*[[Dominant culture]]. A culture that expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organization's members.
#*[[National culture]]. The values and attitudes shared by individuals from a specific country that shape their behavior and beliefs about what is important.
#*[[Strong culture]]. A culture in which the core values are intensely held and widely shared.
#*[[Ethnicity]]. Social traits (such as cultural background or allegiance) that are shaped by a human population.
#'''[[Culture attribute]]'''. A quality or feature regarded as a characteristic or inherent part of [[culture]].
#*[[Power distance]]. A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.
#*[[Collectivism]]. A national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.
#*[[Individualism]]. A national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups.
#*[[Long-term orientation]]. A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence.
#*[[Short-term orientation]]. A national culture attribute that emphasizes the present and accepts change.
#*[[Masculinity]]. A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism.
#*[[Femininity]]. A national culture attribute that indicates little differentiation between male and female roles; a high rating indicates that women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of the society.
#*[[Uncertainty avoidance]]. A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.
#'''[[Preconceived attitude]]'''. An [[attitude]] that someone has already had about representatives of some group without learning about their actual characteristics.
#*[[Prejudice]]. A preconceived belief, opinion, or judgment toward a person or a group of people.
#*[[Stereotyping]]. Judging someone on the basis of a perception of the group to which that person belongs.
#'''[[Cultural attitude]]'''. An [[attitude]] that someone has toward own and other [[culture]]s.
#*[[Parochialism]]. Viewing the world solely through your own perspectives, leading to an inability to recognize differences between people.
#*[[Geocentric attitude]]. A world-oriented view that focuses on using the best approaches and people from around the globe.
#*[[Ethnocentric attitude]]. The parochial belief that the best work approaches and practices are those of the home country.
#*[[Polycentric attitude]]. The view that the managers in the host country know the best work approaches and practices for running their businesses.
#[[File:Conflict-vs-performance.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict]]]]'''[[Conflict]]'''. (1) Perceived incompatible differences that result in interference or opposition; (2) A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.
#*[[Traditional view of conflict]]. The view that all conflict is bad and must be avoided.
#*[[Human relations view of conflict]]. The view that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any group.
#*[[Interactionist view of conflict]]. The view that some conflict is necessary for a group to perform effectively.
#[[File:Conflict-process.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict process]]]]'''[[Conflict process]]'''. A process that has five stages: (1) [[conflict potential]], potential opposition or incompatibility, (2) [[conflict personalization|cognition and personalization]], (3) [[conflict intention|intention]]s, (4) behavior, and (5) [[conflict outcome|outcome]]s.
#*[[File:Conflict-bargaining.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict bargaining]]]][[Conflict bargaining]]. 
#'''[[Conflict potential]]'''. Latent qualities or abilities that may be developed and lead to a [[conflict]].
#*[[Dyadic conflict]]. [[Conflict]] that occurs between two people usually on personal grounds.
#*[[Intergroup conflict]]. [[Conflict]] that occurs between different [[group]]s or [[team]]s.
#*[[Interrole conflict]]. A situation in which the expectations of an individual's different, separate groups are in opposition.
#*[[Intragroup conflict]]. [[Conflict]] that occurs within a [[group]] or [[team]].
#*[[Process conflict]]. A [[conflict]] over how work gets done.
#*[[Relationship conflict]]. A [[conflict]] based on interpersonal relationships.
#*[[Role conflict]]. A [[conflict]] that occurs because of divergent role expectations.
#*[[Task conflict]]. A [[conflict]] over content and goals of the work.
#'''[[Conflict personalization]]'''. A situation in the [[conflict process]] in which one or more parties feel or perceive that the [[conflict]] exists.  is a perception issue, second step of the Conflict Process.
#*[[Felt conflict]]. Emotional involvement in a conflict that creates anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility.
#*[[Perceived conflict]]. Awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise.
#[[File:Conflict-intentions.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict intention]]s]]'''[[Conflict intention]]'''. One's aim, plan, or intention for [[conflict process]] and [[conflict outcome|its outcome]]s.
#*[[Collaborating intent]]. The intention of a party of a [[conflict]] to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties.
#*[[Competing intent]]. The intention of a party of a [[conflict]] to satisfy own interests, regardless of the impact on the other party of the conflict.
#*[[Compromising intent]]. The intention of a party of a [[conflict]] to give up something in order to gain something instead.
#*[[Accommodating intent]]. The intention of a party of a [[conflict]] to place the opponent's interests above his or her own.
#*[[Defending intent]]. The intention of a party of a [[conflict]] to withdraw from a [[conflict]] and [[defensive behavior|behave defensively]] without [[competing]], [[collaborating]], [[accommodating]], and/or [[compromising]].
#'''[[Conflict outcome]]'''. An [[outcome]] from a [[conflict process]].
#*[[Functional conflict]]. A [[conflict]] that supports the goals of the group and improves its performance.
#*[[Dysfunctional conflict]]. A [[conflict]] that prevents a group from achieving its goals.
#'''[[Conflict management]]'''. Handling a [[conflict]].
#*[[Conflict resolution]]. [[Conflict management]] intended to resolve the [[conflict]].
#*[[Conflict stimulation]]. [[Conflict management]] intended to create new [[conflict]]s or intensify the existing ones.
#[[File:Emotional-intelligence.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Emotional intelligence]]]]'''[[Emotional intelligence]]'''. The ability to detect and to manage emotional cues and information.
#*[[Emotional dissonance]]. Inconsistencies between the emotions people feel and the emotions they project.
#*[[Surface acting]]. Hiding one's inner feelings and forgoing emotional expressions in response to display [[rule]]s.
#*[[Deep acting]]. Trying to modify one's true inner feelings based on display [[rule]]s.
#*[[Mindfulness]]. Objectively and deliberately evaluating the emotional situation in the moment.

===Roles===
#'''[[Third party]]'''. An individual or [[group]] besides the two "parties" primarily involved in a situation, especially a dispute.
#*[[Arbitrator]]. A [[third party]] to a negotiation who has the [[authority]] to dictate an [[agreement]].
#*[[Conciliator]]. A trusted [[third party]] who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the opponent.
#*[[Mediator]]. A neutral [[third party]] who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives.
#'''[[Social service provider]]'''. The government, private, and non-profit organization that is engaged in creating more effective organizations, building stronger communities, and promoting equality and opportunity.

===Methods===
#[[File:Status-quo.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Status quo]]]]'''[[Change support analysis]]'''. An evaluation of the stakeholder support of the  and, vice versa, the resistance to this [[proposed change|change]].
#*[[Restraining force]].  A force that hinders movement from the existing equilibrium ([[Kurt Lewin]]).
#*[[Driving force]]. A force that directs behavior away from status quo ([[Kurt Lewin]]).
#'''[[Means, motive, and opportunity]]'''. A common summation of the three aspects of an action; legally, that ''summation'' must be established before guilt can possibly be determined in a criminal proceeding.
#'''[[Conflict-management technique]]'''. An established [[procedure]], either a [[conflict-resolution technique|conflict-resolution]] or [[conflict-stimulation technique]], for [[conflict management]].
#*[[File:Solve-vs-suppress.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict-resolution technique]]]][[Conflict-resolution technique]]. An established way of resolving the [[conflict]].
#[[File:Conflict-resolution.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict-resolution strategy]]]]'''[[Conflict-resolution strategy]]'''. A [[policy]] behind a [[conflict-resolution technique]] to be chosen in order to resolve the [[conflict]]. 
#*[[Just behave defensively]]. The [[conflict-resolution strategy]] behind [[conflict-suppressing technique]]s that involve retreating from an actual or potential conflict situation; postponing active involvement to be better prepared or to wait the [[conflict]] to be resolved by others and/or to fade with time.
#*[[Resource and accommodate]]. The [[conflict-resolution strategy]] behind [[conflict-solving technique]]s that involve (a) adding resources to solve the [[conflict]] and/or (b) conceding one's position to the needs of others to maintain harmony and relationships.
#*[[Compromise and reconcile]]. The [[conflict-resolution strategy]] behind [[conflict-solving technique]]s that involve searching for solutions that bring some degree of satisfaction to all parties in order to temporarily or partially resolve the conflict.
#*[[Force and direct]]. The [[conflict-resolution strategy]] behind [[conflict-suppressing technique]]s that involve pushing one's viewpoint at the expense of others; offering only win-lose solutions, usually enforced through a power position to resolve an emergency.
#*[[Collaborate and problem solve]]. The [[conflict-resolution strategy]] behind [[conflict-solving technique]]s that involve incorporating multiple viewpoints and insights from differing perspectives; requires a cooperative attitude and open dialogue that typically leads to consensus and commitment.
#[[File:De-escalating.png|400px|thumb|right|[[De-escalating]]]]'''[[De-escalating]]'''. Decreasing the [[conflict]] in extent, volume, or scope especially through (a) [[active listening]], (b) [[smoothing]], and (c) [[conflict-solving technique]]s.
#*[[Smoothing]]. Emphasizing common interests and areas of agreement between the conflicting parties while playing down differences in order to ease the tensions.
#'''[[Conflict-stimulation technique]]'''. An established way of stimulating the [[conflict]].
#*[[Provocative communication]]. Using ambiguous or threatening messages to increase conflict levels.
#*[[Bringing in outsiders]]. Adding employees to a group whose backgrounds, values, attitudes, or managerial styles differ from those of present members.
#*[[Stressing the structure]]. Realigning [[workgroup]]s, altering rules and regulations, increasing interdependence, and making similar structural changes to disrupt the status quo.
#*[[Appointing a devil's advocate]]. Designating a critic to purposely argue against the majority positions held by the group.
#'''[[Conflict-solving technique]]'''. An established way of resolving the [[conflict]] having all the parties of the conflict]] to agree on its solution. [[Conflict-solving technique]]s follow [[collaborate and problem solve]], [[resource and accommodate]], and [[compromise and reconcile]] [[Conflict-resolution strategy|strategies]].<blockquote><table class="wikitable" width=100%><tr><td style="text-align:center;">[[Conflict-resolution strategy|Strategy]]</td><th>[[Conflict-solving technique]]</th></tr><tr><th>[[Resource and accommodate]]</th><td><ul><li>[[Accommodating]]. The willingness of one party in a [[conflict]] to place the opponent's interests above his or her own; conceding one's position to the needs of others to maintain harmony and relationships.</li><li>[[Conflict crashing]]. Expansion of the resources can create a win-win solution especially when a conflict is caused by the scarcity of a resource (for example, money, promotion, opportunities, office space, etc.).</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th>[[Compromise and reconcile]]</th><td><ul><li>[[Compromising]]. A situation in which each party to a [[conflict]] is willing to give up something in order to gain something; each party to the conflict gives up something of value.</li><li>[[Engaging a third party]]. </li><li>[[Distributive bargaining]]. </li><li>[[Engaging a conciliator]]. </li></ul></td></tr><tr><th>[[Collaborate and problem solve]]</th><td><ul><li>[[Collaborating]]. A situation in which the parties to a [[conflict]] each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties.</li><li>[[Problem solving]]. Face-to-face meeting of the conflicting parties for the purpose of identifying the problem and resolving it through open discussion.</li><li>[[Integrative bargaining]]. </li><li>[[Engaging a mediator]]. </li><li>[[Superordinate goal setting]]. Creating a shared goal that cannot be attained without the cooperation of each of the conflicting parties.</li><li>[[Improving the human variables]]. Using behavioral change techniques such as human relations training to alter attitudes and behaviors that cause conflict.</li><li>[[Improving the structural variables]]. Changing the formal organization structure and the interaction patterns of conflicting parties through job redesign, transfers, creation of coordinating positions, and the like.</li></ul></td></tr></table></blockquote>
#'''[[Conflict-suppressing technique]]'''. An established way of resolving the [[conflict]] not having all the parties of the conflict]] to agree on its solution. [[Conflict-suppressing technique]]s follow [[just behave defensively]] and [[force and direct]] [[Conflict-resolution strategy|strategies]].<blockquote><table class="wikitable" width=100%><tr><td style="text-align:center;">[[Conflict-suppressing strategy|Strategy]]</td><th>[[Conflict-solving technique]]</th></tr><tr><th>[[Force and direct]]</th><td><ul><li>[[Competing]]. A desire to satisfy one's interests, regardless of the impact on the other party of the conflict.</li><li>[[Authoritative conflict-resolution]]. In a formal setting, an [[authority]] may use its powers to resolve the conflict and then communicate its desires to the parties involved.</li><li>[[Engaging an arbitrator]]. </li></ul></td></tr><tr><th>[[Defensive behavior|Behave&nbsp;defensively]]</th><td style="text-align:center;">A variety of [[defensive-behavior technique]]s.</td></tr></table></blockquote>

===Instruments===
#[[File:Group-development.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Group development]]]]'''[[Group development]]'''. A [[model]] that describes the [[process]] of developing a [[group]]. 
#*[[Forming stage]]. The first stage of [[group development]] in which people join the group and then define the group's purpose, structure, and leadership.
#*[[Storming stage]]. The second stage of [[group development]], characterized by [[intragroup conflict]].
#*[[Norming stage]]. The third stage of [[group development]], characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness.
#*[[Performing stage]]. The fourth stage of [[group development]] when the group is fully functional and works on group task.
#*[[Adjourning stage]]. The fifth stage of [[group development]] for temporary groups during which group members are concerned with wrapping up activities rather than task performance.
#[[File:Punctuated-equilibrium.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Punctuated-equillibrium model]]]]'''[[Punctuated-equilibrium model]]'''. A set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity.
#*[[Punctuated equilibrium]]. The hypothesis that evolutionary development is marked by isolated episodes of rapid speciation between long periods of little or no change.

===Practices===
*Three sciences contribute to studies of [[social rationale]]:
*#'''[[Social psychology]]'''. An area of [[psychology]] that blends concepts from [[psychology]] and [[sociology]] to focus on the influence of people on one other.
*#'''[[Sociology]]'''. The study of people in relation to their social environment and culture.
*#'''[[Anthropology]]'''. The study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.
*'''[[GLOBE project]]''' ([[Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness project]]) is the research project that studies cross-cultural leadership behaviors.

''[[User Experience Quarter]] is the successor lecture. In the [[enterprise analysis]] series, the next lecture is [[Regulatory Сompliance Quarter]].''

==Materials==
===Recorded audio===
===Recorded video===
===Live sessions===

===Texts and graphics===

==See also==