Writing a Report 7e by Bowden

Writing a Report by Bowden (7th edition) is the 7th edition of the Writing a Report: How to prepare, write and present effective reports book authored by John Bowden, who holds its copyright, and published by by How To Content, A division of How To Books Ltd, Begbroke, Oxford, United Kingdom in 2004.

• Abstract (or Summary, or Synopsis). A condensed version of a report which outlines the salient points and emphasises the main conclusions and, where appropriate, the main recommendations. It has two functions: either to provide a precis of what the recipient is about to read, or has just read; or to provide a summary of a report if the recipient is not going to read all of it.
• Acknowledgements. An author's statement of thanks to people and organisations who helped during the preparation of a report.
• Addendum (pl. Addenda). Additional material; an update or afterthought often produced and circulated after a report has been issued.
• Agenda. A type of report listing items to be discussed during a meeting. Therefore it must be drawn up in advance.
• Aims. A statement of why a report was written; who requested it, when it was requested; and its terms of reference. It usually appears in the introduction.
• Algorithm. A flowchart which will answer a question, or solve a problem, or undertake a procedure within a finite number of steps.
• Annual Report. A type of report which lists the achievements and failures of an organisation; a progress report in which every department is accounted for.
• Appendix (pl. Appendixes or Appendices). A section of a report which gives details of matters discussed more broadly in the main body. It provides additional information for readers who require it without breaking the thread of argument in the main body for readers who do not.
• Appraisal report. A type of report which evaluates a person's performance in his or her current job; identifies methods of improving this performance; and often assesses suitability for another job, promotion and/or a change in salary.
• Artwork. The images in a report, such as clip art, original art or photographs.
• Audit report. An external audit report is addressed to shareholders and contains an independent assessment of whether a company's final statements provide a true and fair view of its affairs. An internal audit report is addressed to the management of a company by which the auditor is employed, and is more concerned with segregation of duties and internal control.
• Bar chart. A method of presenting figures visually. Very useful for illustrating relationships between items.
• Bias. Errors that occur in statistical sampling if the sample is not random or if the questioning is not objective and consistent. See Leading question.
• Bibliography. A full list of books and other material used in the preparation of a report. Unlike a reference section, it may also include publications not referred to in the report, but considered potentially valuable or of interest to readers - cf References.
• Binding. The process of assembling the pages of a report in order and then enclosing them within covers.
• Bitmap. A computer image, like a colour photograph - cf Vector.
• Bulleting. A method of highlighting important text by indenting it and placing a bold dot or bullet in front of the first word.
• Caption (or Legend, or Underline). Descriptive words or lines accompanying an illustration.
• Centring text. A method of refining the appearance of text where each line is placed centrally between the right and left margins. This can be used for whole blocks of text but is more frequently applied to headings.
• Circulation list. See Distribution list.
• Clip art illustrations. Available commercially in digital form.
• Column. A format using one, two, or three vertical groupings on a page.
• Comparative testing report. A type of report which tests similar items, assessing each against a number of well-defined standards, and reaching logical conclusions and recommendations(qv) about which are the best and/or which represent the best value for money. The Consumers' Association Which? magazine contains such reports.
• Components. The various sections which collectively make up a report.
• Conclusions. A section of a report where the author links the terms of reference with the findings, as presented in the main body, and reaches clear, simply stated and objective conclusions that are fully supported by evidence and arguments and which come within and satisfy the terms of reference.
• Confidentiality. The degree to which the availability of a report is restricted. Reports are often classified as confidential when they contain politically or industrially sensitive information or comment, or when they discuss personnel. Confidential reports should be stamped as such on the title page and should be kept under physically secure conditions.
• Contact point. The name, address and telephone number of a person the reader can contact if further enquiry or comment is required. It should be given in a report's covering letter.
• Contents page. A list of the various sections of a report in the order in which they appear, with the appropriate page and/or paragraph numbers alongside them. If there are more than just one or two illustrations they should be listed separately below the main contents, giving their captions, figure numbers and page and/or paragraph numbers.
• Copyright. Legal protection against the use of literary or artistic property without permission. The protection afforded by English law lasts for the duration of the author's life and seventy years thereafter. Copyright is different from a patent in that it cannot exist in an idea, but only in its expression.
• Covering letter. An explanatory letter accompanying a report and including a contact point.
• Creative substructure. A substructure where information is presented in an apparently haphazard way. A hybrid of the logical substructure and the sectional substructure.
• Cross-reference. A method of directing readers to another part of a report for related information.
• Cut-away drawing. A pictorial method of illustrating what something looks like. An object is shown with part or all of its outer casing cut away to reveal its internal components.
• Desktop Publishing (DTP). The use of a personal computer system as an inexpensive production system for generating typeset-quality text and graphics. Desktop publishers often merge text and graphics on the same page and print pages on a high resolution laser printer or typesetting machine - c/Word processing.
• Digital. A format used by a computer system that scans the image into computer bits.
• Distribution list (or Circulation list). A list of people who will see a report; its readership. It usually appears on the title page.
• Double spacing. Double the usual space between each line of text. It helps a typist or printer read a manuscript (hand written) report; it makes it easier to correct and amend drafts; and it can help readers of a report. Other line spacings include 0,1/2, 11/2, 21/2 and 3. Obviously the choice will affect the number of lines on a page.
• Draft. An early version of a report drawn up for initial consideration.
• Duty notes report. A type of report which explains how a job is to be performed.
• End matter. The pages of a report after the main body - c/Prelims.
• Enhanced modern format. An ultra-modern format of report with the additional features of added and manipulated images - cf Modern format and Traditional format.
• Explanatory report. A type of report which provides a factual account of something that has happened. More specific than an informative report.
• Exploded drawing. A pictorial method of illustrating what something looks like. The components of an object are shown in assembly as if they were spread out along an invisible axis.
• Feasibility report. A type of report which discusses the practicality, and possibly the suitability and compatibility of a given project, both in physical and economic terms. It must come to a conclusion and must recommend that some action is taken or is not taken and/or that some choice is adopted or is rejected.
• Flowchart. A diagrammatic representation of the sequence of operations in a natural, industrial or organisational system.
• Font. A set of characters (the alphabet, numbers and symbols) in one weight and style of typeface.
• Footers. Identifying information placed at the bottom of each page of a report - cf Headers.
• Footnote. A note or reference placed at the foot of the relevant page; at the end of the relevant section; or towards the end of a report.
• Foreword. An introductory section of a report, similar to a preface and an introduction, but usually written by someone other than the author of the report.
• Format. The general appearance of a report including type style, paper, binding, covers, layout, shape and size.
• Front matter. See Prelims.
• Glossary (Glossary of Terms) or Gloss). An alphabetical list of unfamiliar difficult, specialised or technical words and phrases, acronyms and abbreviations used in a report.
• Gluing. A method of binding a report where the sheets are glued and fixed into the spine of a fabric, card or plastic cover.
• Go live. To actually undertake a statistical survey (or to operate a system), as distinct from pilot testing it.
• Graph. A method of presenting figures visually. Particularly useful for illustrating detailed relationships between items or to show a trend over time.
• Graphics. Image enhancements, such as lines, boxes and background used to create interesting and appealing visual design.
• Headers. Identifying information placed at the top of each page of a report - cf Footers.
• Heading. A means of identifying and labelling a block of type. It should be specific; comparatively short; expected, or at least easily interpreted; and should cover all the ground collectively. It should be more prominent than a subheading, but less prominent than the title. Headings of similar rank should introduce topics of roughly equal importance.
• Highlighting. Drawing attention to important parts of the text by methods other than headings eg using upper case or changing spacing.
• House-style. A consistent style of report writing developed by and used within an organisation.
• Illustration. A pictorial representation of information as distinct from text. Every illustration should have a caption and figure number and must be referred to in the text. If there are more than just one or two illustrations, they should be listed separately on the contents page.
• Indentation. A method of refining the appearance of text where the beginning of a line is inset a number of spaces to indicate a new paragraph; for emphasis; or to break up a large passage.
• Index. An alphabetical list of items discussed in a report together with their page and/or paragraph numbers. An index should contain more entries than a contents page. Necessary only in a large report.
• Indexing. A method of improving the presentation of a report and a way of helping readers find their way around it. The various sections or subsections are separated and distinguished, perhaps by means of overlapping pages or protruding self-adhesive labels.
• Informative report. A type of report which increases the readers' knowledge of an event or brings them up to date. More general than an explanatory report.
• Instructional manual. A type of report which explains how a process (a specific series of actions that bring about a specific result) is to be performed - cf Process description report.
• Internet. The most famous computer network which connects thousands of smaller networks and millions of users all around the world.
• Interview report. A type of report which forms the framework of an interview (although it must not dictate it), and which records facts and opinions about a candidate in a consistent format to facilitate subsequent evaluation and comparison with other candidates.
• Introduction. A section of a report which sets the scene. It states the author's intentions - the terms of reference - and gives the aims and scope of the report. An introduction must include everything the readers will need to know before they read the rest of the report.
• Investigation into the financial affairs of a company report. A type of report concerned with some specific aspect of a company's financial affairs as defined by the terms of reference and/or by statutory regulations.
• Isometric drawing. A pictorial method of illustrating what something looks like. Easy to draw but the lack of perspective makes the object look peculiar.
• Justification. A method of refining the appearance of text where both the left and the right-hand edges are straight.
• KISS. Stands for Keep It Short and Simple. A very useful principle in all aspects and in all stages of report writing.
• Landscape. A page orientation where printing is aligned horizontally on the long edge of the paper - cf portrait.
• Layout. The arrangement of illustrations and text.
• Leading question. A question phrased so as to suggest the answer expected. In statistical sampling it leads to a bias in the results obtained. Therefore it must be avoided.
• Legend. See Caption.
• Libel. A false statement of a defamatory nature about another person that tends to damage his or her reputation and which is presented in a permanent form, such as in writing.
• Logical substructure. A substructure where procedures or events are discussed in the sequence in which they occur or occurred.
• Lower case. Non-capital letters - cf Upper case.
• Main body. The section of a report which contains the main discussion on the subject-matter as defined by the terms of reference.
• Minutes. A type of report which provides a record of business transacted at a meeting. It may well have some legal and authoritative force.
• Modern format. A report which takes advantage of the ability to add lines and boxes, change font size and use italics. Otherwise it is basically like a traditional format - cf Enhanced modern format and Ultra-modern format.
• Network. A collection of telecommunications equipment and transmission lines, used to interconnect devices, such as computers, at different locations so they can exchange information.
• Numbering system. A method of identifying the various components of a report for reference and indexing purposes. Keep it simple.
• Organisational chart. A diagram which depicts the hierarchy of, and the lines of command within, an organisation.
• Orientation. Whether the print of a report is aligned horizontally on the long edge (landscape, qv) or vertically on the short edge (portrait, qv} of the paper.
• Orthographic drawing. A pictorial method of illustrating something. It shows the back, front and side elevations of an object. Of little use where the reader needs to know what it actually looks like.
• Pareto principle. 80% of what is important is represented by 20% of what exists. Not to be taken literally, but a very useful general concept to consider during all stages of report writing.
• Patterned notes. A method of note taking based on the formation of visual links between facts and ideas, both already known and to be discovered. A very useful way of planning a report, as distinct from writing it - cf Traditional notes.
• Perspective drawing. A pictorial method of illustrating what something looks like. It shows what an object actually looks like. Often difficult to draw.
• Pictogram. A method of presenting figures visually by the use of symbols. Very useful for illustrating relationships between items.
• Pie chart. A method of presenting figures visually. Very useful for illustrating relative proportions - or how the total pie is divided up.
• Pilot test. An initial test of a questionnaire or other statistical device among a small number of respondents (or an initial test of a new system) to highlight any obvious errors, omissions, ambiguities or other shortcomings before it goes live.
• Plastic gripper. A method of binding a report by placing a plastic slide grip along the left hand edge of the assembled covers and sheets.
• Population. The total number of people or items within a defined group.
• Portrait. A page orientation where printing is aligned vertically on the short edge of the paper - cf Landscape.
• Preface. An introductory section to a report. Often used to convey some personal background details behind the production of a report.
• Prelims (or Preliminaries, or Front matter). The pages of a report before the main body - cf End matter.
• Probability theory. A statistical concept concerned with the effects of chance on an event, experiment, or observation. The basis of statistical sampling.
• Process description report. A type of report which helps readers understand a process (a specific series of actions that bring about a specific result) - cf Instructional manual.
• Progress report. A type of report which describes how some activity or process is advancing.
• Proofreading. Checking and making corrections on a document prepared by a typist or printer. It is very important to identify and correct spelling mistakes and errors and inconsistencies in layout before a report is reproduced and issued.
• Questionnaire. A method of gathering information by questioning respondents.
• Quota sampling. A method of statistical sampling used to obtain a balanced view from people based on their sex, age and possibly social class. However, within every defined group or population (eg Females, aged 21-30; or Males, aged 41-50), the sample is random.
• Random sample. In statistical sampling, each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
• Readership. The people who will read a report, as listed on the distribution list. The report is written for them so they must be given the information they need and in a form that they can understand without undue effort.
• Recommendations. A section of a report where the author states what specific actions should be taken, and by whom and why, given the terms of reference, the findings as presented in the main body, and the conclusions reached. Recommendations therefore must look to the future and should always be realistic. Do not make them unless they are required by the terms of reference.
• Reference number. A unique number allocated to a report. It should appear on the title page.
• References. A section of a report which provides full details of publications mentioned in the text, or from which extracts have been quoted - cf Bibliography.
• Report. A document produced to convey information to a specific audience at a certain moment in time.
• Research report. A type of report which extends our understanding of the world by reducing our uncertainty and increasing our comprehension of it.
• Respondent. A person who answers questions, perhaps posed in the form of a questionnaire.
• Ring binding. A method of binding a report where a special machine perforates the binding edge and then threads the binding through the holes in the covers and the report. Looks very professional.
• Saddle stitching. A method of binding a report by means of thread or wire through the fold. See Stitching.
• Sampling. See Statistical sampling.
• Scientific report. A type of report which gives an account of a test or experiment together with findings and conclusions.
• Scope. A statement of what was done, and perhaps what was not done - and why it was not done - if the readers could reasonably have assumed that it would have been. It may also include discussion on the resources available to and utilised by the report writer; the sources of information; the working methods employed; and the structure of the report. It usually appears in the introduction.
• Sectional substructure. A substructure where information is presented in meaningful sections, eg the work of each department in turn or each engineering or clerical function in turn.
• Simple random sampling. A method of statistical sampling where every person or item in a population has an equal chance of being selected, eg take ten names out of a hat.
• Skeletal framework. An initial overall plan of the structure of a report. A well-planned skeletal framework is the key to effective report writing. It may be revised at any stage(s) during the preparation of the report.
• Source (Source of information). Any person, book, organisation etc supplying information or evidence (specially of an original or primary character) used in a report.
• Spacing. See Double spacing.
• SQ3R. A method of reading. Stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recall, Review. The way you read should vary according to the complexity of the material and the reasons for reading it.
• Statistical sampling. A method of drawing conclusions about a population by testing a representative sample of it. It is based on probability theory. See Quota sampling; Simple random sampling; and Systematic random sampling.
• Stitching. A method of binding a report where sheets are folded in the middle to make two single-sided or four double-sided pages, and are then bound by saddle stitching.
• Structure. The arrangement of the components which collectively make up a report.
• Subheading. A means of more specifically and precisely identifying and labelling a block of type which comes under an overall heading. Do not use too many subheadings; if necessary re-structure the report to have more headings. Make the subheadings less prominent.
• Substructure. The arrangement of material within each of the components 01 a report, although often applied specifically to the main body. See Logical substructure; Sectional substructure; and Creative substructure.
• Subtitle. A secondary title expanding the main title.
• Summary. See Abstract.
• Synopsis. See Abstract.
• Systems evaluation report. A type of report that evaluates which system out of several alternatives is most suitable for a particular application; or which tests an apparatus or system with a view to possible large scale employment or multiple applications; or which enquires into the causes of failures in an existing operational system. When it serves the last of these purposes, it is sometimes referred to as a trouble-shooting report.
• Systematic diagram. A visual method of illustrating how items within a system are connected to one another, eg the map of the London Underground shows how stations are connected.
• Systematic random sampling. A method of statistical sampling where every person or item in a population has an equal chance of being selected, but the choice is made to a prearranged plan, eg every 100th name on the electoral register.
• Tally sheet. A sheet used to mark or set down, and later to total, the number of observations of specified items; or to mark or set down, and later to total, the various answers given by all respondents to a questionnaire.
• Technical report. A type of report often written at an early stage in a production process.
• Technological report. A type of report which is concerned with the application of practical or mechanical sciences in order to achieve a desired aim.
• Terms of Reference (T of R). A concise statement of precisely what a report is about. It is essential that these are known/agreed before any work is undertaken and they should be referred to in the introduction.
• Text. The words of a report as distinct from its illustrations.
• Title. The overall heading of a report; a restatement of the terms of reference, but usually using different words. It should be clear, concise, relevant and unique and should be more prominent than any other heading which appears in the report.
• Title page. A sheet at the beginning of a report which bears the main title (and subtitle, where appropriate); the reference number, the name of the author; and other important information. Every report should have a title page.
• Traditional format. A report produced on a typewriter - cf Enhanced modern format, Modern format and Ultra-modern format.
• Traditional notes. A method of note taking where relevant material is condensed using headings and subheadings, with the most important points and arguments being highlighted. This method is also the basis of report writing, as distinct from report planning - cf Patterned notes.
• Treasury tag. A simple method of binding a report. Holes are made in the pages and covers using a punch and then tags are inserted. Useful where amendments and/or inserts such as maps and plans are expected.
• Trouble-shooting report. A type of report which locates the cause of some problem, and then suggests ways to remove or treat it. It can deal with people or organisations; or hardware or systems, where it is sometimes referred to as a systems evaluation report.
• Typeface. A specific type design, such as Times New Roman or Rockwell.
• Typography. The art and style of printing.
• Ultra-modern format. A modern format of report with the additional feature of two or more columns - cf Enhanced modern format and Traditional format.
• Underline. See Caption.
• Upper case. Capital letters - cf Lower case.
• Vector. A type of computer image created from lines and shapes - cf Bitmap.
• White space. The empty space on a page.
• Word processing. The use of a personal computer system to enter text from a keyboard, import it from a file, or open a 'standard' document and then edit, format, save or print it. As well as offering tools for basic graphic embellishments, most word processors allow graphics and tabular information to be imported from other programs - cf Desktop publishing (DTP).
• Working papers. Notes recording the detailed information, evidence, findings and sources that will form the basis of the main body, and of any appendixes. Therefore they must be complete and accurate.
• Wysiwyg. An acronym meaning what you see is what you get. In other words, what you see onscreen is an accurate representation of how the report will print out.