Public Speaking 8e by Jaffe

Public Speaking 8e by Jaffe is the 8th edition of the Public Speaking: Concepts and Skills for a Diverse Society textbook authored by Clella Iles Jaffe, George Fox University, and published by Cengage Learning in 2016.

• Absent audiences. Listeners who are separated from the speaker and receive the message through some form of media.
• Absolute listening. Listening without interrupting or inserting oneself into the talk.
• Academic journals. Journals that pertain to a specific area of academic research.
• Accidental plagiarists. Plagiarists who lack knowledge about the rules.
• Accommodation. Response to diversity in which you listen and evaluate the views of others; both sides adapt, modify, and bargain to reach mutual agreements.
• Actuate. Motivate the audience to do something.
• Ad hominem. An attack on the messenger rather than the message.
• Ad populum. An appeal to popular opinion.
• Affective effects. Influences on listeners' feelings.
• Ageist language. Language that negatively influences the way listeners think about older people.
• Alliteration. Word with a recurring initial sound.
• Alternation. Varying numbers and letters in a consistent pattern for different levels of points.
• Ambiguous word. Identifies more than one object or idea; its meaning depends on the context.
• Analogies. State similarities between two things.
• Analogy. Comparison of one item that's less familiar or unknown to something concrete and familiar.
• Annotate. To summarize a book or article's contents on a source card.
• Anticipatory speech anxiety. Tension experienced at the mere thought of giving a speech.
• Antimetabole. Saying words in one phrase, and reversing them in the next phrase.
• Archetypal symbol. Recurring metaphor and simile that arises from shared human and natural experiences.
• Argument. An intentional, purposeful set of reasons created to explain disputed beliefs and conclusions.
• Articulation. The way you enunciate or say specific sounds, an element of pronunciation.
• Artistic proofs. Reasons the speaker creates to accept an argument.
• Assimilation. Response to diversity in which you embrace new perspectives and lifestyles and reject or surrender some or most of your previous beliefs and actions.
• Attitudes. Our tendency to like or dislike something or to have positive or negative feelings about it.
• Audience analysis. Identifying audience characteristics to communicate more effectively.
• Backing. Additional reasons to support or defend a warrant.
• Bar graph. Compares data from several groups by using bands of various lengths.
• Behavioral effects. Influences on audience actions.
• Belief. Mental acceptance of something as true or false, correct or incorrect, valid or invalid.
• Bicultural. Knowing and applying different rules for competent behaviors in two cultures.
• Blame. The cause of the problem.
• Burden of proof. Responsibility of the speaker who argues against the status quo to make the case for change.
• Canon. A set of principles, standards, norms, or guidelines.
• Canon of delivery. Rules or standards for presenting a speech.
• Canon of disposition or arrangement. Guidelines for organizing a speech.
• Canon of invention. Principles for designing a speech that meets a need of a specific audience.
• Canon of memory. Guidelines to help you remember your ideas.
• Canon of style. Principles for choosing effective language.
• Canons of rhetoric. Principles, standards, norms, or guidelines for creating and delivering a speech.
• Causal claim. Claim about the relationship links between occurrences.
• Causal reasoning. Linking two factors in such as way that the first occurs before the second and regularly leads to the second as a matter of rule.
• Cause–effect or causal pattern. Presents reasons (causes) and implications (effects) of a topic.
• Central idea. A synonym for thesis statement.
• Chronological pattern. Presents points in a sequential or time order.
• Civic engagement. Working with others to help solve issues of public concern.
• Civility. A social virtue grounded in courtesy that chooses to understand and work with others.
• Claim. A debatable point or proposal, conclusion, or generalization that some people won't accept without some sort of evidence or backing.
• Claims of prediction. Claim that something will or will not happen in the future.
• Clarification questions. Requests to clear up confusing ideas.
• Classification. A method of presenting information by explaining things that are put into categories according to a principle.
• Closed question. Request for a brief, specific answer.
• Co-cultures. Subgroups of culture, characterized by mild or profound cultural differences that coexist within the larger culture.
• Code switching. Changing from one dialect to another.
• Cognitive dissonance theory. Humans seek stability or equilibrium; when faced with inconsistency they seek psychological balance; this may motivate them to change in order to be consistent.
• Cognitive effects. Influences on beliefs, understandings, and other mental processes.
• Cognitive modification. Identifying negative thoughts and replacing them with positive ones.
• Cognitive preferences. The way you prefer to perceive, reason, remember, and solve problems; it's culturally influenced but unique to you.
• Collectivist cultures. Members of these cultures are integrated into an in-group that protects them throughout their lives.
• Comments. Information from personal experience or research.
• Common ground. Specific areas or concerns that both speaker and audience consider important.
• Communication apprehension (CA). The fear or dread of negative responses you might experience because you speak out.
• Communication style. A culture's preferred ways of communicating, given its core assumptions and norms.
• Communicative competence. The ability to communicate in a personally effective and socially appropriate manner.
• Comprehensive listening. Listening to understand information.
• Concrete word. Specific, rather than general or abstract, term.
• Confident style. A way of speaking characterized by effective vocal variety, fluency, gestures, and eye contact.
• Connectives. Words, phrases, and sentences used to lead from idea to idea and tie the parts of the speech together smoothly.
• Connotative meanings. Emotional overtones, related feelings, and associations that cluster around a word.
• Content outline. Formal record of your major ideas and their relationship to one another in your speech.
• Conversational style. Speaking that's comparatively calmer, slower, and less intense, but maintains good eye contact and gestures.
• Convince. A persuasive purpose that targets audience beliefs.
• Coordination. Arranging points into levels, giving the points on a specific level the same basic value or weight.
• Core cultural resources. Beliefs, attitudes, and values (BAV) along with behaviors that provide a logical basis for a culture to define what is necessary, right, doubtful, or forbidden.
• Correlation. Two things occur together, but one does not necessarily lead to the other.
• Cost. Advantages weighed against the disadvantages.
• Creative work. Poem, dance, painting, writing, or other aesthetic creation.
• Credibility. Listeners' impressions of your character, intentions, and abilities that make you more or less believable.
• Criteria. The standards used for making evaluations or judgments.
• Criteria-satisfaction pattern. Good for value or definition speeches; sets forth standards for judgment or for inclusion in a category and then shows how the proposal meets or exceeds these standards or fits into the category.
• Critical listening. Listening that requires you to reflect and weigh the merits of messages before you accept them.
• Critical thinking. The ability to think analytically about ideas.
• Cultural allusion. Reference to historical, literary, and religious sources that are culturally specific.
• Culture. An integrated system of learned beliefs, values, behaviors, and norms that include visible (clothing, food) and underlying (core beliefs, worldview) characteristics of a society.
• Cure. The solution.
• Cut-and-paste plagiarism. Copying material word for word and then patching it together without quotation marks or citations.
• Cynical. Speakers presenting verbal or nonverbal messages they don't believe in an attempt to create a false image.
• Debatable points. Disputable statement about facts of existence or history.
• Deductive reasoning. Starting with a principle (the premise) and applying it to a specific case.
• Deliberate fraud. Knowing, intentional plagiarism.
• Delivery. The verbal and nonverbal behaviors you use to perform your speech.
• Demagogue. A polarizing speaker who appeals to audiences more on the basis of emotion and personal charisma than on reasoned arguments.
• Demographic analysis. Identifying audiences by populations they represent, such as age or ethnicity.
• Demonstrated or intrinsic credibility. Obvious knowledge the speaker shows during the speech.
• Denotative meaning. What a word names or identifies.
• Diagram. Drawing or design that explains, rather than realistically depicts, an object or process.
• Dialect. A variant form of a language.
• Digital object identifier (DOI). Series of numbers and letters that locate intellectual property online.
• Digital oratory. An emerging form of public address housed online in new media platforms such as YouTube, Vimeo, or iReport.
• Direct methods. Asking audience members directly for their opinion by questionnaires, interviews, and so on.
• Disclaimer. Word or phrase that leads the audience to doubt your competence or expertise.
• Discourse consistency. Using a repetitive style such as alliteration of main points throughout the speech.
• Dismissive language. Put-downs; language that discounts the importance of someone's viewpoint.
• Dissonance. Inconsistency or clash.
• Division. A method for presenting information by breaking the whole into parts and explaining each one.
• Document cameras. High-resolution cameras that display documents and three-dimensional objects.
• Domain. The type of site such as .com, .edu, or .org that tells the site's purpose and tax status.
• D-R-E method. Describe-Respond-Evaluate; a feedback method that describes content, shares personal responses, and gives evaluation.
• Dual coding theory (DCT). Theory that our brains process material two ways: through language and through images.
• Dual processing. Combining words and images to create meanings.
• Empirical facts. Information verifiable by observation.
• Enthymeme. Omitting part of the syllogism in an argument and letting listeners supply what's missing; inherently dialogical.
• Enumeration. A count.
• Epithet. Word or phrase with a powerful negative connotation, used to describe some quality of a person or group.
• Established fact. Information verified consistently by many observers.
• Ethical communication. The conscious decision to speak and listen in ways that you, in light of your cultural ideals, consider right, fair, honest, and helpful to all parties involved.
• Ethnicity. Heritage and cultural traditions, usually stemming from national and religious backgrounds.
• Ethos. Personal credibility or character traits that make a speaker believable and worthy of the audience's confidence.
• Euphemism. Word or phrase that substitutes an inoffensive term for a potentially offensive, embarrassing, or unpleasant thing.
• Exemplum. Speech pattern built around a quotation and developed by at least one narrative.
• Experts. People whose knowledge is based on research, experience, or occupation.
• Expository speech. The "speech to teach" that explains an idea in detail.
• Expressive cultures. Cultures that encourage members to give their opinions, speak their minds, and let their feelings show.
• Extemporaneous delivery. Preparing a speech carefully in advance but choosing the exact wording during the speech itself.
• Eye contact. Looking audiences in the eye; communicates friendliness in the United States.
• Fabrication. Making up information or repeating information without sufficiently checking its accuracy.
• Factual claims. Argument about debatable points, causation, or predictions.
• Fair use provision. The provision in the federal Copyright Act that allows free use of materials for educational and research purposes.
• Fallacy. Failure in logical reasoning that leads to unsound or misleading arguments.
• False analogy. Comparing two things too dissimilar to warrant the conclusion drawn.
• False dichotomy. An either–or fallacy that ignores other reasonable options.
• Faulty generalization. A fallacy of induction; generalizing too broadly, given the evidence.
• Fight-or-flight mechanism. Physiological mechanism your body automatically activates when threatened; helps you fight or flee.
• Figurative analogies. State similarities between two otherwise dissimilar things; requires an imaginative connection.
• Filled or vocalized pause. Saying um or uh or other sounds during a pause.
• Flip chart. Tablet you prepare in advance or create on the spot; turn to a new page or tear off and display pages as you finish them.
• Flowchart. Shows the order or directional flow in which processes occur; may simply be a series of labeled shapes and arrows.
• Gender. Clusters of traits culturally labeled as masculine, feminine, or androgynous.
• General purposes. Four general purposes are to inform, to persuade, to entertain, or to commemorate.
• Geographic map. Shows mountains, deserts, and other natural features; not easily outdated.
• Grounds, data, or evidence. Supporting material for claims.
• Habituation. Lessening anxiety by successfully repeating an experience over time.
• Harm. The problem in a stock issues case; also called ill.
• Hearing. Physical process involving sound waves, eardrums, and brain receptors.
• Heckling. Disrupting a speech by interrupting or shouting down a speaker.
• Hedges. Words such as kinda or I think that can lead listeners to distrust your competence or your knowledge of your topic.
• Homogeneous audiences. Listeners who are similar in attitude.
• Hostile audiences. Listeners who are negative toward the topic or the speaker.
• Hypothetical example. Not a real incident or person, but true-to-life.
• Identification, or co-orientation. Concerns shared among speakers and listeners that help overcome divisions and bring diverse people together.
• Image-based visuals. Carry meaning in visual images; written words are secondary.
• Impromptu delivery. Speaking with little advanced preparation.
• Improper paraphrase. Changing some words of a source but keeping the basic structure and ideas intact without citing the source.
• Inclusive language. Ethical terminology that affirms and includes, rather than excludes, persons or groups of people.
• Indentation. Formatting by spacing various levels of points toward the right.
• Indirect methods. Assessing audiences by observation or secondhand sources.
• Individualistic cultures. Members of these cultures depend mainly on themselves and are judged on personal merits.
• Inductive reasoning. Starting with specific instances or examples, then formulating a reasonable conclusion.
• Information card. Card for recording and categorizing important data.
• Information imbalance. Some people or groups having very little access to information while others have it in abundance.
• Interactive whiteboards. Connects to other technology; you can overwrite material and then save your markups.
• Internal monologue (I-M). Self-talk.
• Internal preview. Brief in-speech summary that foretells the subpoints you'll develop under a major point.
• Internal summary. Restates the ideas within a point or points.
• Invitational rhetoric. Inviting audiences to enter and understand the rhetor's world and then share their own perspectives; focuses on mutual understanding and mutual influence, not winning or change per se.
• Jargon. A specialized, technical vocabulary that serves the interests and activities of a particular group.
• Key words. Important words and phrases that will jog the speaker's memory.
• Language. Verbal code consisting of symbols that a speech community uses for communication.
• Laypeople or peers. Ordinary people whose knowledge comes from everyday experiences.
• Lecture capture. Use of technology to upload class materials in digital formats.
• Legacy journalism. Traditional news sources such as local and national newspapers.
• Line graph. Displays in a linear form one or more variables that fluctuate over a time period.
• Listening. Active process that receives, distinguishes, attends to, assigns meaning, and remembers what you hear.
• Listening speaker. Dialogical speaker who hears audience interests and concerns before, during, and after a speech.
• Literal analogies. Compare two actual things that are alike in important ways.
• Literal images. Show the actual subject.
• Loaded questions. Questions containing implications intended to put the speaker on the defensive.
• Logical elements. A speech's major ideas with supporting materials and their relationship.
• Logos. Arguments from the words of the speech itself; often called rational proofs.
• Manuscript delivery. Reading a speech.
• MAPit. Strategy developed by librarians that evaluates material according to message, author, and purpose.
• Mean. Average of a group of numbers.
• Median. Middle number in a set of numbers arranged in a ranked order.
• Memorized delivery. Learning the speech by heart, then reciting it.
• Metaphor. Comparison of two dissimilar things.
• Metaphorical image. Implies the subject.
• Mixed metaphor. Combining metaphors from two or more sources, starting with one comparison and ending with another.
• Mode. Most frequently occurring number.
• Model. A facsimile of an object you can't easily bring to the speech.
• Monroe's Motivated Sequence. A call to action in five steps: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action.
• Motivated audiences. Listeners who listen for a reason.
• Motivation. Internal, individualized factor that results when we understand how topics affect our lives in a personal way.
• Multivocal society. Society that actively seeks expression of a variety of voices or viewpoints.
• Native digital news. News outlets on the Internet that hire trained journalists and editors.
• Nonexpressive cultures. Cultures that value privacy and encourage members to keep their emotions and ideas to themselves rather than to express them publicly.
• Nonparallel language. Language that does not treat the two sexes equally.
• Online public access catalog (OPAC). Digital catalog to help you locate books and materials in your library's holdings.
• Open question. Giving opportunity for a range of answers or a more lengthy response.
• Oral culture. Culture with no writing and no technology for recording messages apart from face-to-face interactions.
• Oral style. Characteristics of spoken language compared to written language.
• Organic pattern. Alternative pattern that provides a clear speech structure in a less linear form.
• Organizational chart. Shows hierarchies and relationships.
• Original document. Evidence recorded by a primary source such as a letter or autobiography.
• Pandering. Providing messages audiences want to hear, not necessarily what they need to hear.
• Parallel case or literal analogy. Comparing likenesses between two similar things; arguing that what happened in a known case will likely happen in a similar case.
• Parallel points. Points that are similar in kind and length.
• Participatory question. Question that listeners answer overtly.
• Passive audience. Unmotivated listeners who listen to accomplish other goals.
• Pathos. Appeals or reasons directed toward audience emotions.
• Perceived behavioral control. Our opinion about our ability to do a behavior.
• Percentage. Figure that shows the relationship of the part to the whole, which is represented by the number 100.
• Performance anxiety. Fear of forgetting or of poorly presenting a speech.
• Personification. Giving human characteristics to nonhuman entities.
• Perspective taking. Trying to imagine something from another person's point of view.
• Persuasion. The symbolic process in which a communicator intentionally creates an argument in an attempt to convince others to change their attitudes or behaviors in an atmosphere of free choice.
• Physical factors. Bodily conditions that can limit your desire or ability to listen.
• Physiological anxiety. Bodily responses to a perceived threat (increased heart rate, adrenaline rush).
• Picture graph or pictograph. Presents data in pictures, each representing a certain number of individual cases.
• Pie graph. Represents parts of the whole or divisions of a population by circles divided into portions.
• Plagiarism. Presenting the words, images, or ideas of others as if they were your own.
• Policy claim. Disputed claim about the need to act or the plan for taking action.
• Political map. Shows current borders for states and nations; can be outdated in a fast-changing world.
• Post hoc. A fallacy of causation; a false cause.
• Power posing. Assuming the open and expansive postures associated with powerful people.
• Prejudice. Preformed biases or judgments, whether negative or positive.
• Presentation aids. Visual, audio, and multimedia support that helps audiences understand and remember information.
• Presentation software program. Computer software to create a package of lists, tables, graphs, and clip art.
• Presumption. Assumption that change is not necessary until proven otherwise.
• Preview. Short summary of the major points you'll develop in the speech.
• Primary source. Information from a person actually involved in the event.
• Prior or extrinsic credibility. Credibility that speakers bring to the speech because of their experience and reputation.
• Problem–solution pattern. Describes a problem and a possible solution or solutions to it.
• Process anxiety. Fear due to lack of confidence in knowing how to prepare a speech.
• Process speech. Describes a sequence of steps or stages that follow one another in a fairly predictable pattern.
• Pro–con pattern. Presents arguments in favor of and arguments against an issue.
• Psychological anxiety. Mental stress about a perceived threat.
• Psychological factor. Mental stressors or distractions that take away from your desire or ability to focus.
• Psychological profile. Assessment of an audience's beliefs, values, and attitudes regarding a topic.
• Public speaking. A person delivers a presentation to a group that listens, generally without interrupting the speaker's flow of ideas.
• Public speaking anxiety (PSA). Fear or dread specifically related to speaking in public.
• Qualifier. Word or phrase that limits the scope of the claim.
• Race. Category, often associated with stereotypes, based on physical characteristics.
• Racist language. Language that privileges one racial or ethnic group over another.
• Random audiences. Listeners who are initially doing something else but are attracted by a message that catches their attention.
• Ranked questions. Asking for responses to be placed in an order.
• Rates of increase or decrease. Percentage that uses an earlier baseline figure to compare growth or decline.
• Ratio. Relationship shown by numbers, such as 1 in 10.
• Reasoning by metaphor. Comparing two things that are generally different but share a recognizable similarity.
• Rebuttal. Counterargument the audience might have.
• Receiver apprehension (RA). Anxiety that people experience while listening to messages that make them uncomfortable.
• Redundancy. Repeating the same idea more than once, but developing it differently each time.
• Reference librarian. Librarian at the reference desk who is specifically trained to help people find information.
• Relic or artifact. Culturally significant creation such as a building, jewelry, or a tool.
• Repetition. Saying the same thing more than once.
• Request for elaboration. Question asking for more information.
• Resistance. Response to diversity in which you refuse to change, and you defend your own positions or attack others.
• Re-sourcement. Creatively framing a divisive issue or viewpoint in a different way that may be less threatening.
• Reversibility of perspectives. An attempt to think from the other's perspective as well as one's own.
• Rhetoric. The study of persuasion in its various forms; this helps develop critical thinking skills.
• Rhetorical question. Question that listeners answer in their minds.
• Rhetorically sensitive. The ability to adapt fairly successfully to a variety of social situations.
• Rhymes. Words that end in the same sound.
• Rightsabilities. Phrase coined by Professor Vernon Jensen to highlight the tension between our right to free speech and our responsibility for our speech.
• Salient. Relevant or significant.
• Sans serif font. A simple font with no cross lines on each letter.
• Scaled questions. Asking for responses along a continuum, used to assess attitudes.
• Schemas. Mental model that guides your perception, interpretation, storage, and recollection of a speech.
• Scholarly book. Book based on research that advances knowledge in an academic field.
• Script. The written text containing every word of the speech.
• Secondary source. Summary or interpretation of an event or a person provided by a nonparticipant.
• Self-selected. Listeners who choose to listen to a selected subject or speaker.
• Serif font. A font with cross lines at the top and bottom of letters.
• Sex. Biological categories of male and female.
• Sexist language. Language that privileges males and their activities and interests.
• Signpost. Connective such as first, most importantly, and consequently that links ideas, lends emphasis, and helps listeners keep their place in the speech.
• Simile. Short comparison that uses the word like or as to compare two items that are alike in one essential detail.
• Sincere. Speakers presenting verbal and nonverbal messages they themselves believe.
• Six-by-six rule. Limit information to six lines, six words per line.
• Slippery slope. A fallacy of causation; saying one small thing will lead to larger things without offering proof.
• Social category. Culturally constructed category such as race or gender.
• Solvency. The proposed plan will actually solve the problem.
• Source card. Card used to record bibliographic information.
• Spatial pattern. Presents points by place or location.
• Speaking notes. The notes you use to deliver your speech.
• Specialized encyclopedia. Text that summarizes information in a specific subject area.
• Specific purpose. The cognitive, affective, or behavioral response a speaker desires.
• Speech–thought differential. The difference between the rate you think (about 500 words per minute) and the average speaking rate (about 150 words per minute).
• Spinning. Selecting material that favors the speaker's interests and point of view.
• Spiral pattern. Repetitive pattern with a series of points that increase in drama or intensity.
• Standard English. The English dialect most commonly used in public speaking and in US institutions.
• Star pattern. Presents relatively equally weighted speech points within a thematic circle that binds them together; order of points may vary.
• Statement of reasons pattern. Pattern that lists reasons and then explains each one.
• Status quo. Latin phrase that means "the existing state of affairs".
• Stereotyping. Place someone in a category and then assume the person fits the characteristics of that category.
• Stock issues. The questions a reasonable person would need to have answered before forming a reasoned decision about a topic.
• Stress. Accenting syllables or words.
• Structural element. A speech's introduction, body, and conclusion.
• Style. In rhetoric, style refers to language.
• Subject librarian. Librarian who also has an advanced degree in a particular subject such as law or medicine.
• Subjective norms. Our perceptions of what significant people think we should do.
• Subordination. Placement of supporting points under major points.
• Systematic desensitization. Process designed to lessen physical reactions to stress; teaches how to relax while thinking about frightening speech events.
• Taboo. Topics a culture considers inappropriate.
• Tag question. Short question tagged onto the end of a sentence; some can be helpful but others are annoying.
• Terminal credibility. Final impression listeners have of a speaker.
• Tertiary source. Condenses primary and secondary materials into collections such as encyclopedias.
• Text-based visual. Carries meaning in the written words rather than in visual images.
• Theory of reasoned action (TRA). Links behavioral intentions with attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control; assumes we rationally weigh costs and benefits of our actions.
• Thesis statement. A single sentence that names the subject and establishes its significance.
• Topical pattern. Divides a subject into subtopics, each of which is part of the whole.
• Toulmin's Model of Reasoning. A linear model designed to show six elements of reasoning common in the United States.
• Trade book. Book aimed at a general audience.
• Trade journal. Journal that pertains to a specific occupation.
• Transactional model of communication. Represents communication as a process in which speakers and listeners work together to create mutual meanings.
• Transition. Summarizes where you've been and where you're going in your speech.
• Unfilled pause. Silent pause.
• Unmotivated audience. Listeners who lack a listening purpose or goal.
• Unsupported assertion. Unsupported claim.
• Vague word. Imprecise term that has indefinite boundaries.
• Value claim. Argument about right or wrong, moral or immoral, beautiful or ugly.
• Values. Standards used to make evaluative judgments such as good or bad.
• Verbiage. Nonessential language.
• Visualization. Rehearsing by using your imagination to envision your speech from start to finish.
• Vocal variations. Changes in volume, rate, and pitch that combine to create impressions of the speaker.
• Vocalics or paralinguistics. All aspects of spoken language except the words.
• Warmth. Using behaviors that signal positive interest and engagement, especially through pleasant facial expressions.
• Warrant. Assumption that justifies or logically links the evidence to the claim.
• Wave pattern. Repetitive pattern that presents variations of themes and ideas, with major points presented at the crests.
• Word. Verbal symbol that stands for or represents an idea.