Marketing Research 3e by Bradley

Marketing Research 3e by Bradley is the 3rd edition of the Marketing Research: Tools & Techniques textbook authored and copyrighted by Nigel Bradley and published in 2013 by Oxford University Press, a department of the University of Oxford.

• AIR. Average issue readership.
• Amount of viewing/listening/reading. Number of hours exposed to TV, radio, or press.
• Audience share. Percentage of people viewing/listening/reading as a percentage of the total.
• CTR. Measure of times an advert link is chosen from a web page.
• Cover or reach. How many people are 'reached' or 'covered.'
• Frequency. The average number of times people are counted as exposed to specified media outputs (for example, viewers of programmes or readers of magazines).
• GRPs. Gross rating points.
• HUTs. Households using television.
• OTS. Opportunities to see.
• PUTs. People using television.
• Rating. The average percentage of the population who view.
• RPC. Readers per copy.
• TRPs. Target rating points.
• TVRs. TV ratings.
• Acquiescence response bias. A respondent agrees rather than disagrees with a proposition that is posed in the research. This may be done to please the researcher or to conclude the research quickly and it may mask the true answer.
• Ad hoc research. Studies that are designed specifically for a client's need, i.e. customised or bespoke.
• Aggregator. An amalgamation of a specific set of data files, e.g. Google uses automated software to trawl 4500 news sources and organises the results at Google News. This can then be read.
• Aided recall. The use of stimulus material to assist the memory to recall details, usually of brands.
• Alternative hypothesis. A carefully constructed proposition that is likely to be accepted.
• Attitude. The definition of attitude is the subject of much debate by psychologists. It is generally accepted to describe the way in which a person judges an object, situation, concept, company, product, or other item (cf. belief and opinion).
• Automated speech recognition (ASR). A method of recording data, by capturing the human voice in a digital form, and converting it to another medium such as the written word.
• Belief. An acceptance of a suggestion, concept, explanation, or way of thinking. Beliefs generally have an emotional component (cf. attitude and opinion).
• Benchmarking. Comparing the performance of products or services.
• Bracketing. Putting aside (in 'brackets') the knowledge that a researcher may have of a problem, in order to probe for other information.
• Brand equity. The measured value of a brand which often embraces the financial value to shareholders but also customer attitude, belief, and perception.
• Causality. Investigations into the reason, or cause, of certain behaviour or observed effects.
• Central location test. See hall test, clinic, and mall intercept surveys.
• Cheater questions. Questions used to detect interviewers who are not following the required procedures.
• Cinema tests. See theatre tests.
• Classification questions. Questions identifying demographics or 'classifiers' needed for analysis. These include age, sex, social grade, family size, income, and specifics to the topic under study. Usually asked at the end of an interview.
• Client surreptitious sampling. Using a list of customers who have not agreed to their names being used for research purposes.
• Clinic. A variation of the hall test. A quantitative approach where respondents are taken to a location to view product concepts or prototypes; they are observed and interviewed. The clinic is often associated with cars (the 'car clinic'), but the idea has been extended to other vehicles and products.
• Closed questions. Questions for which answers are pre-coded. These answers may be disclosed to informants or may not.
• Comments cards. Small cards distributed by service organisations to monitor satisfaction.
• Computer-assisted mobile phone interviewing (CAMI). A type of interviewing that may be interviewer-assisted, and therefore CATI, or self-completion, therefore CASI. In the CASI mode, it may be by SMS, MMS, or WAP. In SMS, the respondent is sent a text message with questions to be answered by text. The questions are visible to the respondent on the handset and answers are input using the telephone keys. The WAP mode is similar to CAWI.
• Computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI). A respondent is interviewed face-toface and questions are asked. The questions are read from a screen and answers are input using a keyboard.
• Computer-assisted self-completion interviewing (CASI). A respondent answers a questionnaire that is visible on a computer screen or other medium. The answers are recorded by a keyboard, touch screen, or even automatic speech recognition methods. No interviewer is involved.
• Computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI). Questions are asked of a respondent over the telephone. The questions are read from a screen and answers are input by an interviewer using a keyboard.
• Computer-assisted web interviewing (CAWI). A variation of CASI, which uses the Internet to deliver the questionnaire. Respondents will answer using a keyboard, a mouse, or voice recognition software.
• Concept tests. An early stage of new product or new service development. An idea or concept is communicated to potential users or customers.
• Consumer-generated media (CGM). Information left by individuals online; for example, blogs or personal websites. These can be used in marketing research.
• Copy tests. A study that evaluates the effectiveness of an advertisement, slogan, or other form of communication.
• Cover letters and cover emails. A form of introduction and way to persuade respondents to cooperate.
• Crowdsourcing. The extraction and use of information or resources from a large number of undefined people, effectively this is outsourcing as a result of an open call.
• Dashboard. A single computer screen containing visual displays of performance information, usually from several sources, a type of portal.
• Database. A collection of data held on individuals or organisations that is structured in such a way that data can be reorganised to provide meaningful information.
• Data dredging. An approach used to analyse data when hypotheses have not been created. Each variable is cross-analysed against other variables in the study. The researcher looks for patterns.
• Data mart. A collection of subject areas based on the needs of a given department.
• Data mining. The procedure that selects and manipulates large amounts of data to uncover previously unknown relationships and patterns.
• Data warehouse. An extremely large database with a store of transactional data that allows the researcher to make useful analyses.
• Decision-making unit (DMU). The group of people involved in a buying decision process.
• Demographics. The classification information collected during a survey. Standard demographics include age, sex, and social grade. Non-standard demographics are common to all studies, but less used, and may include TEA, nationality, and income. Other demographics are specific to the topic under study, e.g. lapsed users, number of years subscribing. Demographics are the first process in segmenting the market.
• Descriptive research. Studies that portray the market situation, attitudes, beliefs, or opinions. Such studies aim to describe rather than to explain causes.
• Diary. An autobiographical record, which is usually intended for the writer's own reference. In marketing, it can be used in both qualitative and quantitative research. It is a unique account of personal reflection.
• Discussion guide. See topic guide.
• Dogfooding. Testing new products by inviting employees to use them.
• Drop-and-collect. Method of distributing questionnaires for self-completion then collection at a later time.
• Dugging. Database building under the guise of research.
• Earned Media. This is media space that is not owned by an advertiser, nor can promotional space be bought. Media content is produced by third parties but the advertiser can have an influence by providing information and appropriate responses to messages. Therefore the reputation can be 'earned'. Offline this includes published letters and word of mouth; online it includes consumer blogs and social networks. Advertising space is not purchased but it can be influenced.
• Electronic point of sale (or electronic processing of sale, EPOS). The use of technology, particularly the bar-code, to allow swift transactions to take place in retail outlets. The records are a powerful form of internal secondary data. In research terms, this is mechanical observation.
• Ethnography. An extreme form of participant observation whereby the researcher spends time with the subjects who are under investigation.
• Exclusion screener. A question to determine if the informant, or their family or friends, work in occupations that risk news of the project reaching competitors or to avoid atypical answers.
• Experimentation. Conditions or procedures that are arranged in a deliberate way. This manipulation of variables allows a hypothesis to be tested. There are many experimental designs.
• Exploratory research. Studies that attempt to provide information where very little is available. This preliminary data collection can help to define a research objective and to understand the problem in hand.
• Focus group. The group comprises several people who have been invited to a location. They are asked to focus their attention on a specific issue and then to articulate their opinions, attitudes, and beliefs.
• Forecasting. Estimating a future set of conditions. Typically in marketing, this is a forecast on demand, based on the information available. Many techniques can be used in forecasting.
• Form. A structured document, often on paper, but can also be onscreen. The form has a set of words that will instruct or direct the user to consider specific issues. The most common types are known as questionnaires and observation records.
• FRAC profiles. Profiles of the frequency of use, the recency of use, the amount of use, and the category of product being used.
• Frugging. Fund-raising under the guise of research.
• Gatekeepers. In a decision-making unit, these are the people who control the dissemination of information to other people in the unit.
• Gallup poll. Polls originally named after G.H. Gallup, a pioneer in political opinion research. The term has entered everyday language to mean a questionnaire administered across a national sample.
• Geodemographics. Demographic information (sex, age, etc.) cross-analysed by geographic location (postcode, province, region, etc.), popularised as computer analyses of census data became commercially available. In the UK, the most well-known geodemographic classifications are ACORN, Pinpoint, Mosaic, and super profiles.
• Grid. Several questions for one respondent, which are similar, but which will result in different answers, are put together into a grid (or battery).
• Hall tests. Hall tests typically test packaging, new products, and advertising in a quantitative way. Respondents are recruited and taken to a specified location, usually a church hall, village hall, or hotel. Materials are presented to respondents and a questionnaire is administered.
• Incentive. A device used to encourage respondents to cooperate with the researcher. Examples are money, entry to a prize draw, a charity donation, or a gift (summary of results, pen, food, or drink).
• Infographic. A visual representation of knowledge, identifiable for the numerous messages that are communicated by both words and pictures, often called a pictogram.
• Insight management. Proactive management of knowledge rather than reaction to events; insight managers are constantly 'data-mining'.
• Instrument. A research instrument is something used to collect data. It may be a tangible item, such as a photographic camera, or recording device, or a document, such as a questionnaire or topic guide. The term also covers supporting materials such as fieldwork instructions, showcards, etc.
• Instrumentation effect. The measuring device (questionnaire, camera, or other instrument) may have an effect on the respondent's response; this is due to learning. This may be detected if we repeat the procedure and there is a difference in outcome.
• Integrity questions. Sometimes known as cheater or sleeper questions. These check consistency of both respondent and fieldworker.
• Interview schedule. See topic guide.
• Interviewer instructions (or manual). A set of guidelines for the fieldworker with instructions on how to select respondents and how to conduct the interviewing.
• JavaScript tags. A few lines of code added to each web page. When a page loads, these tags cause data to be sent to a data collection server. An important tool in web analytics.
• Key performance indicators (KPIs). Measurements that allow managers to assess whether objectives will be met. They are usually quantifiable and will vary from organisation to organisation.
• Likert scale. A rating scale used to measure the strength of agreement towards one or more clearly worded statements.
• Logfile. A record of the download activity of a specific set of web pages. Logfile analysers are used to make sense of the data. Useful to create online measures for marketing.
• Mall intercept surveys. The North American name for the hall test. These are concentrated in purpose-built shopping centres. Respondents are recruited and taken to a facility within the mall. Materials are presented to respondents and a questionnaire is administered.
• Market research. Research that looks at specific marketplaces; it describes users in those markets and how much product they may use -- an examination of marketing metrics. Term often used interchangeably with marketing research.
• Market research agencies. Agencies offering three types of information service. These services are industrial, trade, and consumer.
• Market share. The amount of the market that can be attributed to each supplier. Usually expressed as a percentage.
• Market size. The potential for a product or service expressed by a quantitative measure. This may be the number of users, the number of buyers, the monetary value, etc.
• Marketing. 'The management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements profitably' (Chartered Institute of Marketing).
• Marketing decision support system (MDSS). A system that gives users reports that are appropriate, and relevant, to their specific needs.
• Marketing information system (MKIS). A set of procedures that have been linked to deliver information from different sources to decisionmakers.
• Marketing metric. A measurement taken from the marketplace that may be indicative of financial performance; for example, market share and perceived product quality.
• Marketing research. Inquiry into the topic of marketing; it looks at the different aspects that must be considered when satisfying requirements. It is the process of providing information to assist in marketing decisions. Term often used interchangeably with market research.
• Masking. A way to disguise comments or images from computer users so that their identity can be protected in a research context.
• Media. Print (newspapers, periodicals); broadcast (radio, television); outdoor (posters, moving media, signage).
• Mere measurement effect. The simple act of taking a measure of attitudes creates an attitude or changes existing attitudes.
• Metaphor. A projective technique.
• Metrics. Measurements that indicate the status of different activities.
• Multiclient studies. Studies that are paid for by two or more clients. Also known as syndicated studies.
• Mystery shopping. Researchers assume the role of a potential or actual customer. Certain aspects of the process are observed and noted by the researcher.
• Network pictures. Visual maps of DMU members and their role in business-to-business buying.
• Non-domestic markets. Also known as 'industrial markets' and 'business-to-business markets'.
• Non-sampling error. An error due to the way observations are made.
• Null hypothesis. A proposition that is the least likely, so it is usually intended to be rejected.
• Observation. A method of primary data collection that involves seeing, tracking, or sensing behaviour or actions in some way.
• Observation forms. A device with which to make a record of observations. It is similar to the self-completion questionnaire, but designed to be answered by a researcher rather than a respondent.
• Omnibus. A general-purpose survey vehicle, which covers a wide range of survey topics, usually shared by many clients.
• Opendata. Data that can be republished without fear of copyright restrictions.
• Open-ended questions. Questions for which the researcher may not be able to anticipate the type of response that will be received, from an informant. Respondents reply using their own words.
• Opinion. A point of view that can be expressed. An opinion is based on some facts or information rather than emotions (cf. beliefs) and has a more narrow definition than an attitude.
• Opinion poll. A survey of opinions, usually taking the form of a quantitative sample survey using a structured questionnaire.
• Order effect. When respondents answer with early statements on any list. Also known as position bias.
• Osgood scale. See semantic differential scale.
• Owned media. This is media space that is in the full control and ownership of the advertiser. Offline this includes trucks, premises signage; online it includes websites and corporate blogs. Promotional communication takes place but advertising space is not purchased.
• Paid media (or bought media). This is traditional and online advertising space that can be purchased.
• Panel. The panel is a set of individuals who are questioned or observed or who report over a period of time. Any changes can therefore be identified and if necessary, investigated.
• Personification. A projective technique.
• Perception. A process that a person uses to understand the environment. Perception depends on such factors as attention, motivation, prior knowledge, etc.
• Pictured aspirations technique (PAT). Several photographs are shown to the informant, and these are sorted to communicate aspirations.
• Placement tests. Tests where respondents are asked to try out products in the normal way in which the product would be used, usually in private, mostly at home.
• POEM (paid, owned, earned media). See individual entries.
• Portal. A workspace, often a web page, that offers the user a starting point to analyse, organise, and share information. The dashboard is a type of portal.
• Position bias. When respondents answer with early statements on any list. Also known as order effect.
• Primary data. Information that is collected for a specific purpose. The same information has not been available before.
• Priming effect. When respondents are led to react in a certain way, this may be a result of introducing them to a certain environment or exposing them to stimuli that naturally lead them to a given reaction.
• Probing. A technique used to clarify unclear or incomplete answers. Probing attempts to motivate the informant to communicate more information without introducing bias into the questions or answers. Common probes are: a repeated question, a pause to motivate the respondent to speak, a repeat of the respondent's answer or last word, standard (neutral) probe questions.
• Projective techniques. Projective techniques enable the subject (informant or respondent) to communicate things to the researcher. For this reason, they are sometimes known as 'enabling' techniques. They offer an alternative to direct questions, and allow us to open the respondent's mind to any topic in a very unique way.
• Prompts. Stimulus material used to assist respondents when being interviewed. They may be words, photos, pictures, jingles, sounds, etc. They will help to 'prompt' recall.
• Protocol analysis. A projective technique.
• Qualitative research. Studies that do not aim to quantify markets in any way. They aim to describe the depth and breadth of attitude, belief, or opinion. Typical tools are focus groups, depth interviews, and observation.
• Quantitative research. Studies designed to describe the quantity of some feature of a marketplace. That quantity may describe market size and market share. Typical tools are structured questionnaires and mechanical measuring devices.
• Quota sampling. A method of non-probability sampling whereby a certain number of informants are required that meet certain criteria. Quotas may be interlocking or noninterlocking.
• Quota sheet. A document issued to interviewers in order to keep a record of sampling progress and to assist in identifying appropriate respondents to complete the assignment.
• Reach. The number (or percentage) of individuals who are exposed to a campaign.
• Recruitment questionnaire. A few essential questions to ensure that the correct person is recruited.
• Refusal. Occurs when a respondent does not cooperate in the research.
• Response rate. The number of complete responses obtained compared with the number of eligible individuals. The response rate is always expressed as a percentage.
• Return envelope. Included with postal questionnaires to increase response rates.
• River sampling. Online technique that avoids using databases by intercepting users by popups, banners, and other devices. Also known as realtime sampling.
• Rotation. A method used either to measure or to diminish the effect of order bias.
• Sample. A number of people selected from a population for questioning or study. The data collected are expected to assist understanding of the entire population.
• Sampling. The process of selecting parts from a defined population in order to examine these parts, usually with the aim of making judgements about the parts of the population that have not been investigated.
• Sampling error. The difference between the sample value and the true value in the population.
• Sampling frame. The basis by which respondents are selected; respondents are sampled from a frame. It can be a tangible list, such as a phone directory, or it might be a set of instructions.
• Satisficing. Occurs when a 'sufficient' answer is given, although a better one may have been available.
• Scale. A device used on questionnaires that measures attitudes. The scale commonly uses words or numbers. There are hundreds, among which are the Likert scale and the semantic differential scale.
• Schedule. A set of instructions, written for the researcher. A schedule is designed to give an interview or a research session some direction and structure.
• Screener questions. A mechanism to select the correct informant. All instruments should have some form of filtering or screening at the start. This avoids interviewing respondents who are not needed.
• Search agents. These allow users to search for information taking the user's specific needs into account; an intelligent search engine.
• Search engines. Provide users with a way of locating and retrieving information from documents located on the Internet. Search engines can search all media whether text, sound, or images.
• Secondary data. Information that has been collected previously, probably for a specific purpose. Secondary data may be internal or external to the organisation.
• Segmentation. The process of subdividing a market into several groups of people or users or other group. This subdivision may be done on the basis of demographics, lifestyle, geography, or other variables that are shared and are appropriate to the product area in question.
• Semantic differential scale. A scale designed to measure the 'semantic space' of interpersonal experience. Respondents do not make an evaluation using numbers; they identify the 'position' of their answer on a line, or space between two descriptions.
• Semiotics. Study of communication through careful analysis of signs.
• Significance testing. Sampling does not collect findings from all members of a population; significance tests are a way to show how 'accurate' those results may be.
• Sleeper questions. Questions used to determine whether a respondent is giving correct answers.
• Social class. Divisions of society. Traditionally, these are lower class, middle class, and upper class; there are many related classifications such as SEG, SEC, and social grade.
• Social grade. Six-category classification system used in the UK; appears as A, B, C1, C2, D, E.
• Social media monitoring. The use of techniques used to observe and register consumer-generated comments, questions, and conversations, usually concerning a specific brand or organisation or campaign. This is output about companies, rather than output by companies.
• Spreadsheet. A worksheet with cells that can be filled with numbers to perform simple calculations.
• Suggestion cards. Small cards distributed by service organisations to monitor satisfaction.
• Sugging. Selling under the guise of research.
• Survey. Another word for the term 'study'; it may be a census survey, a sample survey, or a desk research survey. Many surveys use questionnaires, so the term is sometimes used, incorrectly, instead of the word 'questionnaire'.
• Syndicated studies. Syndicated studies are financially supported by two or more companies. These companies have a common interest in the subject area or in the target market. Also known as multiclient studies.
• Target Group Index (TGI). A study conducted by BMRB in the UK. This study collects information on the profiles of people who use (or do not use) a vast number of products.
• Telescoping effect. Involves remembering an event as occurring more recently than it actually did.
• Tertiary data. Information that has been collected before and has been classified in some way. Examples of tertiary data are index pages in books, abstracts, citations, search engine results.
• Test marketing. A procedure whereby a new product is evaluated in a real or simulated market setting.
• Theatre tests. A cinema is hired and a film or television programme is shown, along with advertisements. Any (or all) of these three may be tested using a self-completion questionnaire.
• Topic guide. A short document used to agree the areas for discussion containing carefully chosen areas in qualitative research. Also known as a discussion guide or an interview schedule.
• Total quality management (TQM). A management idea that tries to ensure employees are all aware of the need for high quality.
• Transcripts. A written record of spoken words, utterances, and other events during fieldwork.
• Trellis chart. Several visual displays with similar axes placed together for easy comparison.
• Triangulation. The process of examining a problem from three or more viewpoints.
• Usage and attitude studies (U&A studies). Quantitative method of examining the amount of product used and attitudes towards it and competing brands. Commonly found in the FMCG sector.
• Van test. A variation of the hall test. A caravan or motorised caravan is parked in a suitable area and respondents are recruited, then invited inside the 'mobile' facility to view products and answer questions.
• Verbatim. A term used to describe the answers to open-ended questions that are captured, word for word, from a respondent.
• Vox pop. Small sound or vision clips of an individual making a specific point. The vox pop gives a qualitative indication of public opinion.
• Wall Street approach. A summary of research results is reported immediately; the details follow. This allows a presentation to end at any point.
• Web analytics. The capture and processing of data from software and hardware that produces performance indications (e-metrics). This is output by companies, rather than output about companies.
• Word cloud. Visual representations of the vocabulary used, with greater prominence given to important content.