Management Information Systems 7e by Sousa, Oz

Management Information Systems 7e by Sousa, Oz is the 7th edition of the textbook authored by Kenneth J Sousa, Bryant University, and Effy Oz, The Pennsylvania State University, Great Valley, and published by Cengage Learning, Stamford, CT, USA in 2015.

• Access controls. Hardware and software measures, such as user IDs and passwords, used to control access to information systems.
• Access point (AP). An arrangement consisting of a device connected to the Internet on one end and to a router on the other end. All wireless devices link to the Internet through the router.
• Affiliate program. An arrangement by which a website promotes sales for another website through a link to the seller's site, and for which the affiliate is compensated. There are various schemes of compensation to affiliates.
• Agile methods. Software development methods that emphasize constant communication with clients (end users) and fast development of code, as well as modifications as soon as they are needed.
• Algorithm. A sequence of steps one takes to solve a problem. Often, these steps are expressed as mathematical formulas.
• Alliance. When organizations combine services to make them more attractive (and usually less expensive) than purchasing services separately. For example, in the travel industry, airlines collaborate with hotel chains and car-rental firms to offer travel and lodging packages.
• Antivirus software. Software designed to detect and intercept computer viruses.
• Applet. A small software application, usually written in Java or another programming language for the web.
• Application. A computer program that addresses a general or specific business or scientific need. General applications include electronic spreadsheets and word processors. Specific applications are written especially for a business unit to accommodate special activities.
• Application program interface (API). Code in applications that helps link them to other applications. Using operating system APIs enables applications to utilize operating system features.
• Application service provider (ASP). A firm that rents the use of software applications through an Internet link. The arrangement is known as Software as a Service (SaaS).
• Application software. Software developed to meet general or specific business needs.
• Application-specific software. A collective term for all computer programs that are designed specifically to address certain business problems, such as a program written to deal with a company's market research effort.
• Application systems support. Provision for software maintenance and user help on an information system.
• Arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The electronic circuitry in the central processing unit of a computer responsible for arithmetic and logic operations.
• Artificial intelligence (AI). The study and creation of computer programs that mimic human behavior. This discipline combines the interests of computer science, cognitive science, linguistics, and management information systems. The main subfields of AI are robotics, artificial vision, natural language processors, and expert systems.
• Assembly language. Second-generation programming languages that assemble several bytes into groups of characters that are human-readable to expedite programming tasks.
• Asymmetric encryption (public key encryption). Encryption technology in which a message is encrypted with one key and decrypted with another.
• Atomic transaction. A transaction whose entry is not complete until all entries into the appropriate files have been successfully completed. It is an important data entry control. (Atom=Indivisible)
• Audit trail. Names, dates, and other references in computer files that can help an auditor track down the person who used an IS for a transaction, legal or illegal.
• Authentication. The process of ensuring that the person who sends a message to or receives a message from another party is indeed that person.
• Autocategorization. Automatic sorting and indexing of information that is executed by specialized knowledge management software.
• Automatic taxonomy. A method in knowledge management to organize text and other nonstructured information in classes or categories.
• B2B. Business-to-business, a term that refers to transactions between businesses, often through an Internet link.
• B2C. Business-to-consumer, a term that refers to transactions between a business and its customers, often through an Internet link.
• B2G. Business-to-government, a term that refers to transactions between a business and state or federal governments, often through an Internet link.
• Backbone. The network of copper lines, optical fibers, and radio satellites that supports the Internet.
• Backup. Periodic duplication of data in order to guard against loss.
• Backward compatibility. Compatibility of a device with another device that supports only an older standard. For example, USB 2.0 is backward-compatible with computers that support only USB 1.1 devices.
• Bandwidth. The capacity of the communications channel, practically its speed; the number of signal streams the channel can support, usually measured as the number of bits per second. A greater bandwidth also supports a greater bit rate, i.e., transmission speed.
• Banner. Advertisement that appears spread across the top or bottom of a webpage.
• Benchmarking. The measurement of time intervals and other important characteristics of hardware and software, usually when testing them before a decision to purchase or reject.
• Beta site. An organization that agrees to use a new application for a specific period and report errors and unsatisfactory features to the developer in return for free use and support.
• Beta version. A prerelease version of software to be tested by companies (called beta sites) that agree to use the application with actual data for several months.
• Big Data. High volumes of data compiled from traditional business activities as well as newer nontraditional sources.
• Bill of materials (BOM). A list showing an explosion of the materials that go into the production of an item. Used in planning the purchase of raw materials.
• Biometric. A unique, measurable characteristic or trait of a human being used for automatically authenticating a person's identity. Biometric technologies include digitized fingerprints, retinal pictures, and voice. Used with special hardware to uniquely identify a person who tries to access a facility or an IS, instead of a password.
• Bit. Binary digit; either a zero or a one. The smallest unit of information used in computing.
• Bits per second (bps). The measurement of the capacity (or transmission rate) of a communications channel.
• Blackout/brownout. A period of power loss (blackout) or a significant fall in power (brownout). Power loss or irregularity may cause computers to stop working, or even damage them. Computers can be protected against blackouts and brownouts by using proper equipment, such as
• [[UPS (uninterruptible power supply) systems.
• Bleeding edge. The situation in which a business fails
• [[Because it tries to be on the technological leading edge.
• Blog. A contraction of web log. A website where participants post their opinions on a topic or set of related topics; these postings are listed in chronological order.
• Bluetooth. A personal wireless network protocol. It enables wireless communication between input devices and computers and among other devices within 10 meters.
• Bot. A small program installed by a hacker on a computer without the user's knowledge, designed to "hijack" the computer so the hacker can take advantage of the computer's resources and/or send spam to large numbers of people.
• Brainstorming. The process of a group collaboratively generating new ideas and creative solutions to problems.
• Brick-and-mortar. A popular term for companies that use physical structure for doing business directly with other businesses and consumers, such as stores. Often used to contrast with businesses that sell only online (pure play).
• Bridge. A device connecting two communications networks that use similar hardware.
• Broadband. High-speed digital communication, sometimes defined as at least 200 Kbps. T1, Cable modem, and DSL provide broadband.
• Broadband over Power Lines (BPL). A broadband service provided over electric power lines.
• Brownout. See blackout/brownout.
• Bus. The set of wires or soldered conductors in the computer through which the different components (such as the CPU and RAM) communicate. It also refers to a data communications topology whereby communicating devices are connected to a single, open-ended medium.
• Business analytics. Software that analyzes business data to help make business decisions, often at the strategic level. An alternative name for business intelligence.
• Business intelligence (BI). Information gleaned from large amounts of data, usually a data warehouse or online databases; a BI system discovers not-yet-known patterns, trends, and other useful information that can help improve the organization's performance.
• Business recovery plan. Organizational plan that prepares for disruption in information systems, detailing what should be done and by whom, if critical information systems fail or become untrustworthy; also called business recovery plan and disaster recovery plan. Also known as business continuity plan.
• Byte. A standard group of eight bits.
• C2C. Consumer-to-consumer business. The term usually refers to web-based transactions between two consumers via the servers of an organization, such as auctions and sales. eBay is an example of a C2C site.
• Case-based reasoning. A methodology of solving a new problem based on the solutions of similar problems, used in expert systems.
• Cash management system (CMS). Information system that helps reduce the interest and fees that organizations have to pay when borrowing money and increases the yield that organizations can receive on unused funds.
• Central processing unit (CPU). The circuitry of a computer microprocessor that fetches instructions and data from the primary memory and executes the instructions. The CPU is the most important electronic unit of the computer.
• Certificate authority (CA). An organization that issues digital certificates, which authenticate the holder in electronic business transactions.
• Change management. A structured, disciplined approach that facilitates the adoption of new or modified systems by various groups and individuals within an organization.
• Character. The smallest piece of data in the data hierarchy.
• Chief information officer (CIO). The highest-ranking IS officer in the organization, usually a vice president, who oversees the planning, development, and implementation of IS and serves as leader to all IS professionals in the organization.
• Chief security officer (CSO). Also called chief information security officer (CISO), the highest-ranking officer in
• [[Charge of planning and implementing information security measures in the organization, such as access codes and backup procedures.
• Chief technology officer (CTO). A high-level corporate officer who is in charge of all information technology needs of the organization. Sometimes the CTO reports to the chief information officer, but in some companies this person practically serves as the CIO.
• CIA triad. A concept which asserts that three basic elements are necessary for secure information systems: confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA).
• Ciphertext. A coded message designed to authenticate users and maintain secrecy.
• Clickstream software. Software that is a standard feature of web server software and is used to collect and analyze user activities on a website.
• Clickstream tracking. The use of software to record the activities of a person at websites. Whenever the person clicks a link, the activity is added to the record.
• Clock rate. The rate of repetitive machine cycles that a computer can perform; also called frequency. Measured in GHz.
• Closed system. A system that stands alone, with no connection to another system.
• Cloud computing. A model of computing in which local devices access applications and storage on remote servers, usually over the Internet.
• Cloud storage. The availability of network-accessible storage from an off-site computer or storage device.
• Clustering. A model of computing in which a "cluster" of smaller computers are linked via networks to use the computing power of multiple smaller computers, rather than one large supercomputer.
• Coaxial cable. A transmission medium consisting of thick copper wire insulated and shielded by a special sheath of meshed wires to prevent electromagnetic interference. Supports high-speed telecommunication.
• Co-location. The placement and maintenance of a web server with servers of other subscribers of the service provider. The servers are co-located in the same facility.
• Competitive advantage. A position in which one dominates a market; also called strategic advantage.
• Compiler. A program whose purpose is to translate code written in a high-level programming language into the equivalent code in machine language for execution by the computer.
• Composite key. In a data file, a combination of two fields that can serve as a unique key to locate specific records.
• Computer-aided design (CAD). Special software used by engineers and designers that facilitates engineering and design work.
• Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). Automation of manufacturing activities by use of computers. Often, the information for the activity comes directly from connected computers that were used for engineering the parts or products to be manufactured.
• Content management system. Software that allows users to publish, edit, and update website content.
• Control unit. The circuitry in the CPU that fetches instructions and data from the primary memory, decodes the instructions, passes them to the ALU for execution, and stores the results in the primary memory.
• Controls. Constraints applied to a system to ensure proper use and security standards.
• Conversion. The process of abandoning an old information system and implementing a new one.
• Cookie. A small file that a website places on a visitor's hard disk so that the website can remember something about the visitor later, such as an ID number or username.
• Cost/benefit analysis. An evaluation of the costs incurred by an information system and the benefits gained by the system.
• CPU clock. Circuitry in a computer's central processing unit (CPU) that synchronizes all tasks performed by the CPU.
• Create a new and unique product or service. A strategic move that can give an organization a competitive advantage.
• Create a standard. A strategic move that can give an organization a competitive advantage.
• Critical mass. In terms of strategic advantage, a body of
• [[Clients that is large enough to attract many other clients.
• Crowdsourcing. A process for outsourcing a variety of tasks or problems to a distributed group of people, both online or offline.
• CRT (cathode-ray tube). A display (for a computer or television set) that uses an electronic gun to draw and paint on the screen by bombarding pixels on the internal side of the screen.
• Custom-designed software (tailored software). Software designed to meet the specific needs of a particular organization or department; also called tailored software.
• Customer relationship management system (CRM system). A set of applications designed to gather and analyze information about customers.
• Cut-over conversion (flash cut conversion). A swift switch from an old information system to the new.
• Cyber terrorism. Terrorist attacks that target information systems or other online or technology infrastructure.
• Dashboard. A graphic presentation of organizational performance. Dashboards display in an easy-to-grasp visual manner metrics, trends, and other helpful information that is the result of processing of business intelligence applications.
• Data. Facts about people, other subjects, and events. May be manipulated and processed to produce information.
• Data dictionary. The part of the database that contains information about the different sets of records and fields, such as their source and who may change them.
• Data flow diagram (DFD). A graphical method to communicate the data flow in a business unit. Usually serves as a blueprint for a new information system in the development process. The DFD uses four symbols for entity, process, data store, and data flow.
• Data integrity. Accuracy, timeliness, and relevance of data in a context.
• Data management module. In a decision support system, a database or data warehouse that allows a decision maker to conduct the intelligence phase of decision making.
• Data mart. A collection of archival data that is part of a data warehouse, usually focusing on one aspect of the organization such as sales of a family of products or daily revenues in a geographic region.
• Data mining. Using a special application that scours large databases for relationships among business events, such as items typically purchased together on a certain day of the week, or machinery failures that occur along with a specific use mode of the machine. Instead of the user querying the databases, the application dynamically looks for such relationships.
• Data modeling. The process of charting existing or planned data stores and flows of an organization or one of its units. It includes charting of entity relationship diagrams.
• Data processing. The operation of manipulating data to produce information.
• Data redundancy. The existence of the same data in more than one place in a computer system. Although some data redundancy is unavoidable, efforts should be made to minimize it.
• Data warehouse. A huge collection of historical data that can be processed to support management decision making.
• Data warehousing. Techniques to store very large amounts of historical data in databases, especially for business intelligence.
• Data word. The number of bits that a CPU retrieves from memory for processing in one machine cycle. When all other conditions are equal, a machine with a larger data word is faster.
• Database. A collection of shared, interrelated records, usually in more than one file. An approach to data management that facilitates data entry, update, and manipulation.
• Database administrator (DBA). The individual in charge of building and maintaining organizational databases.
• Database approach. An approach to maintaining data that contains a mechanism for tagging, retrieving, and manipulating data.
• Database management system (DBMS). A computer program that allows the user to construct a database, populate it with data, and manipulate the data.
• Debugging. The process of finding and correcting errors in software.
• Decision support system (DSS). Information system that aids managers in making decisions based on built-in models. DSSs comprise three modules: data management, model management, and dialog management. DSSs may be an integral part of a larger application, such as an ERP system.
• Dedicated hosting. An arrangement in which a web hosting organization devotes an entire server to only the website of a single client organization, as opposed to having multiple clients' sites share one server.
• Denial of service (DoS). The inability of legitimate visitors to log on to a website when too many malicious requests are launched by an attacker. Most DoS attacks are distributed (DDoS).
• Dialog module. The part of a decision-support system, or any other system, that allows the user to interact with the application. Also called interface.
• Dial-up connection. A connection to the Internet through a regular telephone and modem. Dial-up connections are slow, as opposed to broadband connections.
• Differentiation. A strategic initiative that can give an organization a competitive advantage by persuading consumers that its product or service is better than its competitors'.
• Digital certificate. Computer file that serves as the equivalent of an ID card.
• Digital signature. An encrypted digest of the text that is sent along with a message that authenticates the identity of the sender and guarantees that no one has altered the sent document.
• Digital systems. Systems that communicate and process information in a form that follows the binary system of counting and binary methods of representing information, including sound and images.
• Dimensional database. A database of tables, each of which contains aggregations and other manipulated information gleaned from the data to speed up the presentation by online processing applications. Also called multidimensional database.
• Direct access. The manner in which a record is retrieved from a storage device, without the need to seek it sequentially. The record's address is calculated from the value in its logical key field.
• Direct-attached storage (DAS). Any data storage device that is directly connected to a computer as opposed to being connected via a communications network. When a disk is contained in the computer box or externally but directly linked to it, it is considered DAS.
• Disaster recovery plan. See business recovery plan.
• DMZ. Demilitarized zone, a network of computers and other devices connected to the Internet where visitors are not allowed direct access to other resources connected to the DMZ. DMZs are used to serve visitors while minimizing risk of unauthorized access.
• DNS (Domain Name System). Hardware and software making up a server whose purpose is to resolve domain names (converting them back to IP numbers) and routing messages on the Internet.
• Domain name. The name assigned to an Internet server or to a part of a server that hosts a website.
• Dot-matrix printer. An older type of printer on which the printhead consists of a matrix of little pins; thus, each printed character is made up of tiny dots.
• Downstream. The movement of data bits from another computer to your computer via the Internet. Downstream speed of Internet connection services is usually greater than the upstream speed.
• Downtime. The unplanned period of time during which a system does not function.
• Drilling down. The process of finding the most relevant information for executive decision making within a database or data warehouse by moving from more general information to more specific details, such as from performance of a division to performance of a department within the division.
• Driver. The software that enables an operating system to control a device, such as an optical disc drive or joystick.
• Dynamic IP address. The IP address assigned to a computer that is connected to the Internet intermittently for the duration of the computer's connection.
• Dynamic webpage. A webpage whose contents change while the visitor watches it.
• E-commerce. Business activity that is electronically executed between parties, such as between two businesses or between a business and a consumer.
• Economic order quantity (EOQ). The optimal (costminimizing) quantity of a specific raw material that allows a business to minimize overstocking and save cost without risking understocking and missing production deadlines.
• Effectiveness. The measure of how well a job is performed.
• Efficiency. The ratio of output to input; the greater the ratio, the greater the efficiency.
• Electronic funds transfer (EFT). The electronic transfer of cash from an account in one bank to an account in another bank.
• Electronic product code (EPC). A product code embedded in a radio frequency identification (RFID) tag. Similar to the older UPC.
• EMI (electromagnetic interference). Unwanted disturbance in a radio receiver or electrical circuits caused by electromagnetic radiation from an external source.
• [[Fiber-optic cable is not susceptible to EMI.
• Employee knowledge network. Software that facilitates search of relevant knowledge within an organization. The software points an employee with need for certain information or expertise to coworkers who might have such information or expertise.
• Encapsulation. In object-oriented terminology, the combined storage of both the data and the procedures to manipulate the data.
• Encryption. The conversion of plaintext to an unreadable stream of characters, especially to prevent a party that intercepts telecommunicated messages from reading them. Special encryption software is used by the sending party to encrypt messages, and by the receiving party to decipher them.
• Enhance existing products or services. A strategic initiative that can give an organization a competitive advantage by adding to a product or service to increase its value to the consumer.
• Enterprise application. An application that fulfills a number of functions together, such as inventory planning, purchasing, payment, and billing.
• Enterprise resource planning system (ERP system). An information system that supports different activities for different departments, assisting executives with planning and running different interdependent functions.
• Entity. Any object about which an organization chooses to collect data.
• Entity relationship diagram (ERD). One of several conventions for graphical rendition of the data elements involved in business processes and the logical relationships among the elements.
• EPC (electronic product code). The electronic equivalent of a universal product code (UPC), commonly embedded in an RFID (radio frequency identification) tag.
• Ergonomics. The science of designing and modifying machines to better suit people's health and comfort.
• Ethernet. The design, introduced and named by Xerox, for a popular data communications protocol.
• European Article Number (EAN). A European standard of product code, similar to UPC but containing more information.
• Expert system (ES). A computer program that mimics the decision process of a human expert in providing a solution to a problem. Current expert systems deal with problems and diagnostics in narrow domains. An ES consists of a knowledge base, an inference engine, and a dialog management module.
• Extranet. A network, part of which is the Internet, whose purpose is to facilitate communication and trade between an organization and its business partners.
• Fault tolerance. The ability of a system to continue to
• [[Function despite a catastrophe or other usually disruptive events. Fault tolerance systems are usually redundant.
• Feasibility studies. A series of studies conducted to determine if a proposed information system can be built, and whether or not it will benefit the business; the series includes technical, economic, and operational feasibility studies.
• Fiber to the Home (FTTH). The connection of a home to the Internet through optical fiber technology. Often, other services, such as television and landline phone, are also provided through the same medium.
• Field. A data element in a record, describing one aspect of an entity or event. Referred to as attribute in relational databases.
• File. In relational database terminology, a collection of related records.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP). Software that allows the transfer of files over communications lines.
• Firewall. Hardware and software designed to control access by Internet surfers to an information system, and access to Internet sites by organizational users.
• First mover. A business that is first in its industry to adopt a technology or method.
• Fixed wireless. A network of fixed transceivers to facilitate connection to the Internet. Requires line of sight between transceivers.
• Flash drive. A storage device containing flash memory. Flash drives are used in numerous electronic devices and often are designed to connect to a computer through a USB port.
• Flash memory. A memory chip that can be rewritten and can hold its content without electric power. Thumb drives, as well as ROM, are made of flash memory.
• Flat-panel monitor. A computer display device that has a slim profile, sharper images, and lower power consumption than older CRT monitors.
• Foreign key. In a relational database, a field in a table that is a primary key in another table. Foreign keys allow association of data between the two files.
• Fulfillment. Picking, packing, and shipping after a customer places an order online.
• General-purpose application software. Programs that serve varied purposes, such as developing decisionmaking tools or creating documents; examples include spreadsheets and word processors.
• Geographic information system (GIS). Information system that exhibits information visually on a computer monitor with local, regional, national, or international maps, so that the information can easily be related to locations or routes on the map. GISs are used, for example, in the planning of transportation and product distribution, or the examination of government resources distributed over an area.
• Gigabit Ethernet. A network protocol often used in local area networks (LANs) supporting up to 1 Gbps.
• Global information system. Any information system that crosses national borders.
• Global Trade Item Number (GTIN). A number that uniquely identifies products and services. The GTIN is a global standard succeeding the EAN and UPC.
• Glocalization. The planning and designing of global websites so that they also cater to local needs and preferences.
• Graphical user interface (GUI). A user interface that uses windows, icons, scroll bars, and other graphical images to help the user interact with the program.
• Group decision support system (GDSS). Decision support system for a group of people rather than an individual. Often, a GDSS serves remote workers through the Internet, and provides mechanisms for bringing up ideas, discussing them, voting, and concluding a decision.
• Groupware. Any of several types of software that enable users of computers in remote locations to work together on the same project. The users can create and change documents and graphic designs on the same monitor.
• Hard disk. A stack of several rigid aluminum platters coated with easily magnetized substance to record data. Usually installed in the same box that holds the CPU and other computer components, but may be portable.
• Hardware. All physical components of a computer or computer system.
• Hijacking. In the context of networks, computers that are remotely taken advantage of by people who were not authorized to do so by the lawful owner. The computer is "hijacked" after a controlling application was surreptitiously installed on the computer's hard disk. Hijacked computers are exploited to participate in spamming or DDoS attacks.
• Honeypot. A duplicate database on a server connected to the Internet to trace an intruder. The server is dedicated specifically for detection of intrusions and is not productive. The honeypot is there to be attacked in lieu of a productive server. The traces can be used to improve security measures and possibly catch the intruder.
• Honeytoken. A bogus record in a database on a honeypot or productive server that is likely to draw an intruder's attention. If the intruder changes the record, the security officers know that the server has been attacked and can fix vulnerabilities.
• Host. A computer that contains files and other resources that can be accessed by "clients;" computers link to it via a network.
• Hot site. A location where a client organization hit by a disaster can continue its vital operations. The structure -- often underground -- is equipped with hardware and software to support the client's employees.
• Hotspot. An area in which a wireless device can connect to the Internet. The hotspot is created by installing an access point consisting of a device connected to the Internet on one end and to a router on the other end. All wireless devices link to the Internet through the router.
• HTML5. The newest version of HTML/XML, which includes support for multimedia and mobile devices.
• HTTPS. The secure version of HTTP.
• Hypermedia. A feature that enables a user to access information by clicking on selected text or graphics.
• Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). A programming language for webpages and web browsers.
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Software that allows browsers to log on to websites.
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS). See HTTPS.
• Identity theft. The criminal practice of obtaining enough personal information to pretend to be the victim, usually resulting in running up that person's credit cards or issuing new credit cards under that person's name.
• IEEE 802.11. A family of standards for wireless communication. Several IEEE 802.11 standards have been approved by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
• Imaging. The transformation of text and graphical documents into digitized files. The document can be electronically retrieved and printed to reconstruct a copy of the original. Imaging has saved much space and expense in paper-intensive business areas.
• Impact printer. Printer that creates images on the page using mechanical impact. A dot-matrix printer is an impact printer.
• Implementation. In systems development, a phase that consists of two steps: conversion and training. Also called the delivery phase.
• Impression. In web advertising, the event of an ad displayed on a surfer's monitor.
• Inference engine. The part of an expert system that links facts and relationships in the knowledge base to reach a solution to a problem.
• Information. The product of processing data so that it can be used in a context by human beings.
• Information map. The description of data and information flow within an organization.
• Information system (IS). A computer-based set of hardware, software, and telecommunications components, supported by people and procedures, to process data and turn it into useful information.
• Information systems auditor. A professional whose job it is to find erroneous or fraudulent entries in corporate information systems and investigate them.
• Information technology (IT). Refers to all technologies that collectively facilitate construction and maintenance of information systems.
• Inheritance. In object-oriented terminology, the ability of a new (child) object to "inherit" some or all of the characteristcs of a previously developed (parent) object.
• Input. Raw data entered into a computer for processing.
• Input device. A tool, such as a keyboard or voice recognition system, used to enter data into an information system.
• Instant messaging (IM). The capability for several online computer users to share messages in real time; also called chatting online.
• Intelligent agent. A sophisticated program that can be
• [[Instructed to perform services for human beings, especially on the Internet.
• Internal memory. The memory circuitry inside the computer, communicating directly with the CPU. Consists of RAM and ROM.
• Internet service provider (ISP). An individual or organization that provides Internet connection, and sometimes other related services, to subscribers.
• Interpreter. A programming language translator that translates the source code, one statement at a time, and executes it. If the instruction is erroneous, the interpreter produces an appropriate error message.
• Intranet. A network using web browsing software that serves employees within an organization.
• IP address. A unique number assigned to a server or another device that is connected to the Internet for identification purposes. Consists of 32 bits. The newer IPv6 protocol contains 128 bits, allowing many more unique IP addresses.
• Join table. In relational database manipulation, a table created by linking -- that is, joining -- data from multiple tables.
• Just-in-time (JIT). The manufacturing strategy in which suppliers ship parts directly to assembly lines, saving the cost of warehousing raw materials, parts, and subassemblies.
• Key performance indicator (KPI). A value used to measure performance in key areas of a business or organization; examples include occupancy ratios in hotels in hospitals, inventory turns in retail, or customer phone hold time in customer relations. KPIs are often shown in business analytic dashboard software.
• Keylogging. Automatically recording the keystrokes of a computer user. The logging is done by special software, usually surreptitiously with the intention of later using secret access codes.
• Knowledge base. The collection of facts and the relationships among them that mimic the decision-making process in an expert's mind and constitute a major component of an expert system.
• Knowledge management (KM). The combination of activities involved in gathering, sharing, analyzing, and disseminating knowledge to improve an organization's performance.
• Knowledge workers. Employees whose main tasks involve collecting and organizing knowledge and information.
• Late mover. An organization that adopts a technology or method after competitors have adopted it.
• Liquid crystal display (LCD). A flat-panel computer monitor in which a conductive-film-covered screen is filled with a liquid crystal whose molecules can align in different planes when charged with certain electrical voltage, which either blocks light or allows it to pass through the liquid. The combination of light and dark produces images of characters and pictures.
• Load balancing. The transfer of visitor inquiries from a busy server to a less busy server.
• Local area network (LAN). A computer network confined to a building or a group of adjacent buildings, as opposed to a wide area network.
• Location-based services. Services that are enabled based on the location of a consumer combined with other data gathered from online and mobile apps, social media, and other sources. Location-based services offer the ability to target customers and gather more effective information about them.
• Lock in clients or suppliers. A strategic initiative that can give an organization a competitive advantage by forcing suppliers or buyers to use their products or modes of operation. Possessing bargaining power (the leverage to influence buyers and suppliers) is key to this approach.
• Logic bomb. A destructive computer program that is inactive until it is triggered by an event taking place in the computer, such as the deletion of a certain record from a file. When the event is at a particular time, the logic bomb is referred to as a time bomb.
• Long-Term Evolution (LTE). A standard method of wireless communications, specifically for high-speed data transmission for mobile phones. Also known as 4G LTE.
• Machine cycle. The steps that the CPU follows repeatedly: fetch an instruction, decode the instruction, execute the instruction, and store the result.
• Machine language. Binary programming language that is specific to a computer. A computer can execute a program only after the program's source code is translated to object code expressed in the computer's machine language.
• Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR). A technology that allows a special electronic device to read data printed with magnetic ink. The data is later processed by a computer. MICR is widely used in banking. The bank code, account number, and the amount of a check are printed in magnetic ink on the bottom of checks.
• Mainframe computer. A computer larger than a midrange computer but smaller than a supercomputer.
• Management information system (MIS). A computerbased information system used for planning, control, decision making, or problem solving.
• Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II). The combination of MRP with other manufacturing-related activities to plan the entire manufacturing process, not just inventory.
• Many-to-many relationship. In databases, a relationship between two tables whereby every record in a table can be associated with several records in the other table.
• Mashup. An application created by integrating two or more existing applications, such as integrating a mapping application with a database of local charity associations.
• Massively open online course (MOOC). An education delivery method that combines traditional course materials with interactive online forums for educators and students; a form of distance learning.
• Master production schedule (MPS). The component of an MRP II system that specifies production capacity to meet customer demands and maintain inventories.
• Material requirements planning (MRP). Inventory control that includes a calculation of future need.
• M-commerce. See mobile commerce.
• Message digest. The first phase of the encryption process is to create a message digest from the file you wish to transmit, akin to a unique fingerprint of a file. Encryption software then encrypts the message digest to create a digital signature for that specific file.
• Metadata. Information about the data in a database, often called data dictionary.
• Metropolitan area network (MAN). Network that links multiple LANs within a large city or metropolitan region and typically spans a distance of up to 50 kilometers/30 miles.
• Microprocessor. An electronic chip that contains the circuitry of either a CPU or a processor with a dedicated and limited purpose, for example, a communications processor.
• Microwaves. Short (high frequency) radio waves. Used in telecommunications to carry digital signals.
• MIPS. Millions of instructions per second; an inaccurate measure of computer speed.
• Mirror server. An Internet server that holds the same software and data as another server, which may be located thousands of miles away.
• Mission-critical application. Application without which a business cannot conduct its operations.
• Mission statement. A paragraph that communicates the most important overarching goal of an organization for the next few years.
• Mobile applications developer. Person who develops software for smartphones and other mobile devices.
• Mobile commerce. Commerce conducted with the aid of mobile devices such as smartphones.
• Model. A representation of reality.
• Model management module. A collection of models that a decision-support system draws on to assist in decision making.
• Modem. Short for modulator/demodulator; a communications device that transforms digital signals to analog telephone signals, and vice versa, for data communications over voice telephone lines. The term is widely used for all devices that connect a computer to a wide area network, such as the Internet, even if the device does not modulate or demodulate.
• Motherboard. The primary circuit board in a computer, also called the system board.
• Mouse. An input device that controls an on-screen pointer to facilitate the point-and-click approach to executing different operations.
• Multicore processor. A processor that contains more than one central processing unit. Each core is equivalent to a CPU.
• Multidimensional database. See dimensional database.
• Multimedia software. Software that processes and displays various forms of information: text, sound, pictures, and video.
• Multiprocessing. The mode in which a computer uses more than one processing unit simultaneously to process data.
• Multitasking. The ability of a computer to run more than one program seemingly at the same time; it enables the notion of windows in which different programs are represented.
• Near-field communiations (NFC). A standard communication protocol to create a radio connection between two devices within close proximity.
• Network. A combination of a communications device and a computer or several computers, or two or more computers, so that the various devices can send and receive text or audiovisual information to each other.
• Network administrator. The individual who is responsible for the acquisition, implementation, management, maintenance, and troubleshooting of computer networks throughout the organization.
• Network interface card (NIC). Circuitry embedded or installed in a computer to support proper linking of the computer to a network.
• Network-attached storage (NAS). An arrangement of storage devices linked to computers through a network.
• Neural network. An artificial intelligence computer program that emulates the way in which the human brain operates, especially its ability to learn.
• Node. A device connected to at least one other device on a network.
• Nonimpact printer. A printer that creates an image on a page without pressing any mechanism against the paper; includes laser, ink-jet, electrostatic, and electrothermal printers.
• Notebook computer. A computer as small as a book, yet with computing power similar to that of a desktop microcomputer.
• Object code. Program code in machine language, immediately processable by the computer.
• Object-oriented database model. A database model in which data is part of an object, that is processed using object-oriented programs.
• Object-oriented programming programming language (OOP programming language). A programming language that combines data and the procedures that process the data into a single unit called an "object," which can be invoked from different programs.
• OC (optical carrier). A family of several very high-speed technologies using optical fibers. Usually, the standard is marked as OC-3, OC-12, OC-48, etc.
• Offshoring. Outsourcing work to employees in other countries.
• One-to-many relationship. In a database, a relationship between two tables such that each record in the one table can be associated with several records in the other table but each record in the other table can be associated with only one record in the first table.
• Online analytical processing (OLAP). A type of application that operates on data stored in databases and data warehouses to produce summary tables with multiple combinations of dimensions. An OLAP server is connected to the database or data warehouse server at one end and to the user's computer at the other.
• Open source software. Software whose source code can be accessed by the general public.
• Open system. A system that interfaces and interacts with other systems.
• Operating system (OS). System software that supports the running of applications developed to utilize its features and controls peripheral equipment.
• Optical disc. A disc on which data is recorded by treating the disc surface so it reflects light in different ways; includes CD and DVD.
• Optical tape. A storage device that uses the same principles as a compact disc.
• Organizational culture. An umbrella term referring to the general tone of a corporate environment.
• Output. The result of processing data by the computer; usually, information.
• Output device. A device, usually a monitor or printer, that delivers information from a computer to a person.
• Outsourcing. Buying the services of an information service firm that undertakes some or all of the organization's IS operations.
• Packaged software. General-purpose applications that come ready to install from a magnetic disk, CD, or file downloaded from a vendor's website.
• Parallel conversion. Using an old information system along with a new system for a predetermined period of time before relying only on the new one.
• Parallel processing. The capacity for several CPUs in one computer to process different data at the same time.
• Parameters. The categories that are considered when following a sequence of steps in problem solving.
• Peer-to-peer file sharing (P2P file sharing). Software applications that enable two Internet users to send and receive to each other. The technology is highly objectionable to organizations that sell copyrighted materials because the software promotes violation of copyrights.
• Peer-to-peer LAN. A local area network (LAN) in which no central device controls communications.
• Personal area network (PAN). A network of devices typically within a small radius that enables a user to use two or more devices wirelessly, such as a wireless keyboard and mouse.
• Personal computer. The collective name for several types of computers designed for individual computing: notebook computers, desktops, netbooks, and handheld computers.
• Personal digital assistant (PDA). A type of handheld computer that was popular in the 1990s-2000s but has been superseded by smartphones and tablets. Many PDAs require the use of a special stylus to click displayed items and to enter handwritten information that is recognized by the computer.
• Phased conversion. Implementing a new information system one module at a time.
• Phishing. The criminal practice of luring Internet users to provide their personal information via email or the web. Phishing almost always results in fraud or identity theft.
• Pilot conversion. A trial conversion in which a new information system is introduced in one business unit before introducing it in others.
• Pixel. The smallest picture element addressable on a monitor, short for "picture element." In an LCD monitor, it is a triad of three transistors controlling the colors of red, green, and blue that can be switched on and off and kept on with varying amounts of electricity to produce various colors and hues.
• Plaintext. An original message, before encryption.
• Plug-and-play (PnP). The ability of an operating system to recognize a new attachment and its function without a user's intervention.
• Podcast. To make a digital audio recording, usually of voice, and post the file on the web so that people can download and listen to it. People can subscribe to automatically download podcasts to their computers or devices.
• Port. (1) A socket on a computer to which external devices, such as printers, keyboards, and scanners, can be connected. (2) Software that enables direct communication of certain applications with the Internet.
• Primary key. In a database file, a field that holds values that are unique to each record. Only a primary key can be used to uniquely identify and retrieve a record.
• Process. Any manipulation of data, usually with the goal of producing information.
• Productivity. Efficiency, when the input is labor. The fewer labor hours needed to perform a job, the greater the productivity.
• Programmer/analyst. An entry-level position for IT professionals in computer programming. A programmer/analyst is partly involved in the analysis of business needs and ISs, but the greater part of the job involves setting up business applications.
• Programming. The process of writing software.
• Programming language. Set of syntax for abbreviated forms of instructions that special programs can translate into machine language so a computer can understand the instructions.
• Progressive elaboration. A process in systems development in which a vision of an initiative continually develops and influences the final product over time as more information is available.
• Project management. The set of activities that is performed to ensure the timely and successful completion of a project within the budget. Project management includes planning activities, hiring and managing personnel, budgeting, conducting meetings, and tracking technical and financial performance. Project management software applications facilitate these activities.
• Project portfolio management. A set of processes and methods used by project managers to determine which projects will meet the organization's operational and financial goals in relation to its strategic objectives as well as the needs of its customers.
• Proprietary software. Software owned by an individual or organizations. The owner can control licensing and usage terms of the software. Nonproprietary software is not owned by anyone and is free for use.
• Protocol. A standard set of rules that governs telecommunication between two communications devices or in a network.
• Prototyping. An approach to the development of information systems in which several analysis steps are skipped, to accelerate the development process. A "quick and dirty" model is developed and continually improved until the prospective users are satisfied. Prototyping has evolved into agile development methods.
• Proxy server. A computer that serves as an intermediary between two servers on the Internet, often for the purpose of security or filtering out certain information.
• Pure-play. A business operating with clients only via the web, as opposed to operating via stores or other physical facilities.
• Query. A request for information, usually addressed to a database.
• Radio frequency identification (RFID). Technology that enables identification of an object (such as product, vehicle, or living creature) by receiving a radio signal from a tag attached to the object.
• RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks). A set of magnetic disk packs maintained for backup purposes. Sometimes RAID is used for storing large databases.
• Raise barriers to entrants. A strategic initiative that can give an organization a competitive advantage by making it difficult or impossible for other organizations to produce the product or service it provides.
• RAM (random access memory). The major part of a computer's internal memory. RAM is volatile; that is, software is held in it temporarily and disappears when the machine is unplugged or turned off, or it may disappear when operations are interrupted or new software is installed or activated. RAM is made of microchips containing transistors. Many computers have free sockets that allow the expansion of RAM.
• Rapid prototyping. Using software and special output devices to create prototypes to test design in three dimensions.
• Reach percentage. The percentage of web users who have visited a site in the past month, or the ratio of visitors to the total web population.
• Record. A set of standard field types. All the fields of a record contain data about a certain entity or event.
• Reduce costs. A strategic initiative that can give an organization a competitive advantage by lowering prices through having lower costs.
• Reengineering. The process by which an organization takes a fresh look at a business process and reorganizes it to attain efficiency. Almost always, reengineering includes the integration of a new or improved information system.
• Relational model. A general structure of a database in which records are organized in tables (relations) and the
• [[Relationships among tables are maintained through foreign keys.
• Relational operation. An operation that creates a temporary table that is a subset of the original table or tables in a relational database.
• Repeater. A device that strengthens signals and then sends them on their next leg toward their next destination.
• Request for information (RFI). A request to vendors for general, somewhat informal, information about their products.
• Request for proposal (RFP). A document specifying all the system requirements and soliciting a proposal from vendors who might want to bid on a project or service.
• Resolution. The degree to which the image on a computer monitor is sharp. Higher resolution means a sharper image. Resolution depends on the number of pixels on the screen and the dot pitch.
• Return on investment (ROI). A financial calculation of the difference between the stream of benefits and the stream of costs over the life of an information system; often used as a general term to indicate that an investment in an information system is recouped or smaller than the cost the system saves or the increase in revenue it brings about.
• Reverse auction (name-your-own-price auction). An online auction in which participants post the price they want to pay for a good or service, and retailers compete to make the sale; also called a name-your-price auction.
• RFI (radio frequency interference). The unwanted reception of radio signals that occurs when using metal communication lines. Optical fibers are not susceptible to RFI.
• ROM (read-only memory). The minor part of a computer's internal memory. ROM is loaded by the manufacturer with software that cannot be changed. Usually, ROM holds very basic system software, but sometimes also applications. Like RAM, ROM consists of microchips containing transistors.
• Router. A network device, wired or wireless, that ensures proper routing of messages within a network such as a LAN and between each device on that network and another network, such as the Internet.
• RSS. Really Simple Syndication, a type of application using XML for aggregating updates to blogs and news posted at websites.
• SaaS (Software as a Service). A software distribution method in which an application software provider (ASP) or vendor provides software over a network, often through the Internet. Payment is determined by the software made available, number of users, and the contract length of time.
• Scalability. The ability to adapt applications as business needs grow.
• Schema. The structure of a database, detailing the names and types of fields in each set of records, and the relationships among sets of records.
• Search advertising. Placing ads at search engine websites.
• Search engine optimization (SEO). Tactics that allow a business to gain a high-ranking placement of their online entry in search engine results pages.
• Self-service. The customer's ability to determine the timing and services of their needs through an organization's website.
• Semistructured problem. An unstructured problem with which the decision maker may have had some experience. Requires expertise to resolve.
• Sensitivity analysis. Using a model to determine the extent to which a change in a factor affects an outcome. The analysis is done by repeating if-then calculations.
• Sequential storage. A file organization for sequential record entry and retrieval. The records are organized as a list that follows a logical order, such as ascending order of ID numbers, or descending order of part numbers. To retrieve a record, the application must start the search at the first record and retrieve every record, sequentially, until the desired record is encountered.
• Server. A computer connected to several less powerful computers that can utilize its databases and applications.
• Service-level agreement. A document that lists all the types of services expected of an outsourcing vendor as well as the metrics that will be used to measure the degree to which the vendor has met the level of promised services. Usually, the client makes the list.
• Shared hosting. An arrangement by which the websites of several clients are maintained by the hosting vendor on the same server.
• Smartphone. A cell phone that has a high-resolution color screen, is web and Internet-enabled, and runs mobile applications, or apps.
• Social engineering. Deceptive methods that hackers use to entice people to release confidential information such as access codes and passwords. Often, the crooks misrepresent themselves as technicians who need one's password for fixing a problem in a network.
• Software. Sets of instructions that control the operations of a computer.
• Software as a service (Saas). A software distribution method in which an application software provider (ASP) or vendor provides software over a network, often through the Internet. Payment is determined by the software made available, number of users, and the contract length of time.
• Solid state disk (SSD). Flash memory that serves as an internal or external storage medium as if it were a hard disk.
• Solid state storage. Computer storage that can be rewritten and retains its contents when electrical power is turned off; also known as flash memory.
• Source code. An application's code written in the original high-level programming language. source data input device]]. A device that enables data entry directly from a document without need for human keying. Such devices include bar-code readers and optical character readers.
• Speech recognition. The process of translating human
• [[Speech into computer-readable data and instructions.
• Spyware. A small application stored surreptitiously by a website on the hard disk of a visitor's computer. The application tracks activities of the user, including visits to websites, and transmits the information to the operator's server.
• SSO (single sign-on). Enabling employees to access several information systems by using a single password.
• Static IP address. An IP address permanently associated with a device.
• Storage. (1) The operation of storing data and information in an information system; (2) Any non-RAM memory, including internal and external hard disks, flash memory, and optical discs.
• Storage area network (SAN). A device that enables multiple networked computers to save data on a group of disks located in a special area.
• Storage-as-a-service. Outsourcing corporate data storage to cloud storage vendors.
• Storage service provider (SSP). A firm that rents storage space for software through an Internet link.
• Strategic advantage. A position in which one dominates a market; also called competitive advantage.
• Strategic information system (SIS). Any information system that gives its owner a competitive advantage.
• Structured problem. A problem for whose solution there is a known set of steps to follow. Also called a programmable problem.
• Structured Query Language (SQL). The data definition and manipulation language of choice for many developers of relational database management systems.
• Stylus. A penlike marking device used to enter commands and data on a computer screen.
• Subsystem. A component of a larger system.
• Suite. A group of general software applications that are often used in the same environment. The strengths of the different applications can be used to build a single powerful document. Current suites are usually a combination of a spreadsheet, a word processor, presentation software,
• [[And a database management system.
• Supercomputer. The most powerful class of computers, used by large organizations, research institutions, and universities for complex scientific computations and the manipulation of very large databases.
• Supply chain. The activities performed from the purchase of raw material to the shipping of manufactured goods and collecting for their sale.
• Supply chain management system (SCM system). The coordination of purchasing, manufacturing, shipping, and billing operations, often supported by an enterprise resource planning system.
• Switch. A common networking device used as a central location to connect computers or devices to a local network.
• Switching costs. Expenses that are incurred when a customer stops buying a product or service from one business and starts buying it from another.
• Symmetric encryption (secret key encryption, private key encryption). Encryption technology in which both the sender and recipient of a message use the same key for encryption and decryption.
• System. An array of components that work together to achieve a common goal or multiple goals.
• System administrator. A computer professional who manages and maintains an organization's operating systems. Often referred to as "sys admin."
• System requirements. The functions that an information system is expected to fulfill and the features through which it will perform its tasks.
• System software. Software that executes routine tasks. System software includes operating systems, language translators, and communications software.
• Systems analysis. The early steps in the systems development process; to define the requirements of the proposed system and determine its feasibility.
• Systems analyst. An IT professional who analyzes business problems and recommends technological solutions.
• Systems design. The evaluation of alternative solutions to a business problem and the specification of hardware, software, and communications technology for the selection solution.
• Systems development life cycle (SDLC). The oldest method of developing an information system, consisting of several phases of analysis and design, which must be followed sequentially.
• Systems integration. Interfacing several information systems.
• T1 and T3 lines. Point-to-point dedicated digital circuits provided by telecommunications companies to provide high-speed communications for a fee.
• Table. A set of related records in a relational database.
• Tablet computer. A mobile computing device with a touch screen that uses a stylus or your fingers to execute commands; smaller than laptop computers but larger than smartphones.
• Targeted marketing. Promoting products and services to the people who are most likely to purchase them.
• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). A set of related protocols that can guarantee packets are delivered in the correct order and can handle differences in transmission and reception rates.
• Technology convergence. The combining of several technologies into a single device, such as mobile phone, digital camera, and web browser in a smartphone.
• Telecommunications. Communications over a long distance, as opposed to communication within a computer, or between adjacent hardware pieces.
• Throughput. A general measure of the rate of computer output or communications speed.
• Time to market. The time between generating an idea for a product and completing a prototype that can be massmanufactured; also called engineering lead time.
• Top-level domain. The last part of a URL, a period and three letters that represent a major category into which URLs are divided, such as .com, .edu, and .gov.
• Total cost of ownership (TCO). A financial estimate that allows business leaders to objectively evaluate the direct and indirect costs of a new organizational project.
• Touch screen. A computer screen that serves both as input and output device. The user touches the areas of a certain menu item to select options, and the screen senses the selection at the point of the touch.
• Trackback. A feature of some blog software that notifies bloggers when their posts have been mentioned elsewhere on the web.
• Trackball. A device similar to a mouse, used for clicking, locking, and dragging displayed information; in this case, the ball moves within the device rather than over a surface.
• Trackpad. A device used for clicking, logging, and dragging displayed information; the cursor is controlled by moving one's finger along a touch-sensitive pad.
• Traditional file approach. An older approach to maintaining data which has no mechanism for tagging, retrieving, and manipulating data, and which has been largely superseded by the database approach.
• Transaction. A business event. In an IS context, the record of a business event.
• Transaction processing system (TPS). Any system that records transactions.
• Transmission rate. The speed at which data is communicated over a communications channel.
• Transport Layer Security (TLS). The successor of Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), the software in the web browser responsible for secure communication.
• Trojan horse. A malicious piece of software hidden with a benign and legitimate software that one downloads or agrees to otherwise accept and install on one's computer. The Trojan horse then causes damage.
• Twisted pair cable. Traditional telephone wires, twisted in pairs to reduce electromagnetic interference.
• Unicode. An international standard to enable the storage and display of characters of a large variety of languages -- such as Asian, Arabic, and Hebrew -- on computers.
• Unified Modeling Language (UML). An extensive standard for graphically representing elements of programming, specifically accommodating programming in object-oriented languages and web technologies.
• Uniform Code Council (UCC). An organization that promotes the use of uniform standards for bar codes.
• Uniform Resource Locator (URL). The address of a website. Always starts with http:// or https:// but does not have to contain www.
• Uninterruptible power supply (UPS). A device that provides an alternative power supply as soon as a power network fails.
• Universal Product Code (UPC). A code usually expressed as a number and series of variable width bars that uniquely identifies the product by scanning.
• Universal serial bus (USB). A ubiquitous socket that enables the connection of numerous devices to computers.
• Unstructured problem. A problem for whose solution there is no pretested set of steps, and with which the solver is not familiar -- or is only slightly familiar -- from previous experience.
• Upstream. The movement of data from your computer to another computer via a network, usually the Internet.
• [[Upstream speed through the services of Internet providers is typically lower than the downstream speed.
• Uptime. The percentage of time (so much time per year) that an information system is in full operation.
• USB drive. Any storage device that connects to a computer through a USB socket, but especially flash drives.
• User application development. Development of corporate applications by employees rather than IT professionals.
• Utilities. Programs that provide help in routine user operations.
• Value-added network (VAN). A telecommunications network owned and managed by a vendor that charges clients periodic fees for network management services.
• Videoconferencing. A telecommunications system that allows people who are in different locations to meet via transmitted images and speech.
• Virtual memory. Storage space on a disk that is treated by the operating system as if it were part of the computer's RAM.
• Virtual private network (VPN). Hardware and software installed to ensure that a network path that includes the Internet enables employees of the same organization or employees of business partners to communicate confidentially. The hardware and software create an impression that the entire communication path is private.
• Virtual private server. Part of a server that serves as an Internet server for a client of a web hosting company, while other clients share the same physical server.
• Virus. Destructive software that propagates and is activated by unwary users; a virus usually damages applications and data files or disrupts communications.
• Visual programming language. A programming language that provides icons, colors, and other visual elements from which the programmer can choose to speed up software development.
• VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol). Technologies that enable voice communication by utilizing the Internet instead of the telephone network.
• Web hosting. The business of organizations that host, maintain, and often help design websites for clients.
• Webpage authoring tools. Software tools that make webpage composition easier and faster than writing code by providing icons and menus.
• Webmaster. The person who is in charge of constructing and maintaining the organization's website.
• What-if analysis. An analysis that is conducted to test the degree to which one variable affects another; also called sensitivity analysis.
• Wide area network (WAN). A network of computers and other communications devices that extends over a large area, possibly comprising national territories. Example: the Internet.
• Wi-Fi. A name given to the IEEE 802.11 standards of wireless communication. Wi-Fi technologies are used in hotspots and in home and office networks.
• Wiki. A web application that enables users to add to and edit the content of webpages, or software that enables collaborative software used to create and revise websites.
• WiMAX. The IEEE 802.16 standard for wireless networking with a range of up to 50 km (31 miles). (WiMAX stands for the organization that promotes that standard, Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access.)
• Wireless LAN (WLAN). A local area network that uses electromagnetic waves (radio or infrared light) as the medium of communication. In recent years almost all WLANs have been established using Wi-Fi.
• Work order. A numbered (or otherwise uniquely coded) authorization to spend labor and other resources on the manufacturing of a product or rendering of a service. Usually, work orders are opened within a project number. The system of project number and work orders helps track costs and activities related to an assignment in an organization, typically one in the manufacturing sector.
• Workstation. A powerful microcomputer providing highspeed processing and high-resolution graphics. Used primarily for scientific and engineering assignments.
• Worm. A rogue program that spreads in a computer network. Unlike other computer viruses, worms do not need human intervention to spread.
• XHTML. A standard that combines HTML standards and XML standards.
• XML (Extensible Markup Language). A programming language that tags data elements in order to indicate what the data means, especially in webpages.
• Yield management software. Software that helps maximize the capacity of airline seats and hotel rooms by analyzing which variables affect purchasing of such services and in what way.