Difference between revisions of "Social Rationale Quarter"

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[[Social Rationale Quarter]] (hereinafter, the ''Quarter'') is a lecture introducing the learners to [[social analysis]] primarily through key topics related to [[social rationale]]. The ''Quarter'' is the second of four lectures of [[Social Quadrivium]], which is the fifth of seven modules of '''[[Septem Artes Administrativi]]''' (hereinafter, the ''Course''). The ''Course'' is designed to introduce the learners to general concepts in [[business administration]], [[management]], and [[organizational behavior]].
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[[Social Rationale Quarter]] (hereinafter, the ''Quarter'') is a lecture introducing the learners to [[social research]] primarily through key topics related to [[social rationale]]. The ''Quarter'' is the second of four lectures of [[Social Quadrivium]], which is the fifth of seven modules of '''[[Septem Artes Administrativi]]''' (hereinafter, the ''Course''). The ''Course'' is designed to introduce the learners to general concepts in [[business administration]], [[management]], and [[organizational behavior]].
  
  
 
==Outline==
 
==Outline==
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''[[Communication Quarter]] is the predecessor lecture. In the [[enterprise analysis]] series, the previous lecture is [[Human Perceptions Quarter]].''
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''[[Communication Quarter]] is the predecessor lecture. In the [[enterprise research]] series, the previous lecture is [[Human Perceptions Quarter]].''
  
 
===Concepts===
 
===Concepts===
 
#'''[[Social rationale]]'''. A set of reasons or a logical basis for a course of action or a particular belief of a [[group]] of people.
 
#'''[[Social rationale]]'''. A set of reasons or a logical basis for a course of action or a particular belief of a [[group]] of people.
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#*[[Institutions]]. Cultural factors that lead many organizations to have similar structures, especially those factors that might not lead to adaptive consequences.
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#*[[Social psychology]]. An area of [[psychology]] that blends concepts from [[psychology]] and [[sociology]] to focus on the influence of people on one other.
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#*[[File:Cohesiveness-and-norms.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Group cohesiveness|Cohesiveness]] and [[norm]]s]][[Group cohesiveness]] (also known as [[group cohesion]] or [[social cohesion]]). The extend to which members of a group support and validate one another, attracted and emotionally attached to one another, share the group's goals, and motivated toward the group.
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#*[[Sociology]]. The study of people in relation to their social environment and culture.
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#*[[Norm]]. An acceptable standard or expectation within a group that is accepted and shared by a group's members.
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#*[[Anthropology]]. The study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.
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#*[[Ingroup favorism]]. Perspective in which one sees members of own [[ingroup]] as better than other people, and, often, people not in own group as all the same.
 
 
#'''[[Group]]'''. Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular goals.
 
#'''[[Group]]'''. Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular goals.
 
#*[[Informal group]]. A group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined; such a group appears in response to the need for social contact.
 
#*[[Informal group]]. A group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined; such a group appears in response to the need for social contact.
 
#*[[Formal group]]. A designated workgroup defined by an organization's structure.
 
#*[[Formal group]]. A designated workgroup defined by an organization's structure.
 
#*[[Interacting group]]. A typical group in which members interact with each other face to face.
 
#*[[Interacting group]]. A typical group in which members interact with each other face to face.
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#*[[Reference group]]. An important group to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform.
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#*[[Reference group]]. An important group to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose [[group culture|culture]] individuals are likely to conform.
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#'''[[Role]]'''. A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.
 
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#*[[Role ambiguity]]. When role expectations are not clearly understood.
 
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#*[[Role expectations]]. How others believe a person should act in a given situation.
 
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#*[[Role overload]]. Having more work to accomplish than time permits.
 
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#*[[Role perception]]. An individual's view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation.
 
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#'''[[Status]]'''. A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.
 
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#*[[Status characteristics theory]]. A theory that states that differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups.
 
 
#'''[[Social identity theory]]'''. Perspective that considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups.
 
#'''[[Social identity theory]]'''. Perspective that considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups.
 
#*[[Outgroup]] ([[out-group]]). (1) Those people who do not belong to a specific [[ingroup]]; the inverse of an [[ingroup]], which can mean everyone outside one's group; (2) An identified other group.
 
#*[[Outgroup]] ([[out-group]]). (1) Those people who do not belong to a specific [[ingroup]]; the inverse of an [[ingroup]], which can mean everyone outside one's group; (2) An identified other group.
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#*[[Faultiness]]. The perceived divisions that split groups into two or more subgroups based on individual differences such as sex, race, age, work experience, and education.
 
#*[[Faultiness]]. The perceived divisions that split groups into two or more subgroups based on individual differences such as sex, race, age, work experience, and education.
 
#*[[Boundary spanning]]. When individuals form relationships outside their formally assigned groups.
 
#*[[Boundary spanning]]. When individuals form relationships outside their formally assigned groups.
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#'''[[Diversity]]'''. The extent to which members of a group are similar to, or different from, one another.
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#'''[[Group trait]]'''. An enduring characteristic that describes a group's behavior. The major trait is members of the group themselves, as well as their number, their combination of [[personality|personaliti]]es, [[core value|values]], beliefs, and [[attitude]]s. The other traits include [[group cohesiveness]], [[diversity]], and [[group culture]].
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#*[[Deep-level diversity]]. Differences in values, personality, and work preferences that become more important for determining similarity as people get to know each other.
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#*[[Group culture]]. The set of shared [[core value|values]], beliefs, [[attitude]]s, [[social norm]]s, and [[material symbol]]s that characterizes some particular [[group]]. The beliefs commonly include perceptions of [[role]]s and [[status]]es.
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#*[[Discrimination]]. Noting of a difference between things; often we refer to [[unfair discrimination]], which means making judgments about individuals based on [[stereotype]]s regarding their demographic group. [[Unfair discrimination]] occurs when someone acts out their prejudicial attitudes toward people who are the targets of their prejudice.
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#[[File:Cohesiveness-and-norms.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Group cohesiveness|Cohesiveness]] and [[Social norm|norm]]s]]'''[[Group cohesiveness]]'''. The extend to which members of a group support and validate one another, attracted and emotionally attached to one another, share the group's goals, and motivated toward the group.
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#[[File:Diversity.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Surface-level diversity]]]]'''[[Surface-level diversity]]'''. Differences in easily perceived characteristics, such as gender, race, ethnicity, age, or disability, that do not necessarily reflect the ways people think or feel, but may activate or trigger certain [[stereotype]]s.  
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#*[[Group cohesion]]. A situation when group members are emotionally attached to one another and motivated toward the group because of their attachment.
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#*[[Biographical characteristic]]. A quantifiable personal characteristic such as age, gender, income, education, socioeconomic status, family size, marital status, race, and length of tenure that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. These characteristics are [[indicator]]s of [[surface-level diversity]].
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#'''[[Groupthink]]'''. (1) A phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action; (2) A situation in which a group exerts extensive pressure on an individual to align her or his opinion with others; (3) An aggregate of opinions of various group members.
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#*[[Race]]. The biological heritage (including skin color and associated traits) that people use to identify themselves.
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#*[[Conformity]]. The adjustment of one's behavior to align with the [[group culture]].
 +
#*[[Hawthorne Studies]]. A series of studies during the 1920s and 1930s that provided new insights into individual and group behavior.
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#*[[Groupshift]]. A change between a group's decision and individual decision that a member within the group would make; the shift can be toward either conservatism or greater risk but it generally is toward a more extreme version of the group's original position.
 +
#'''[[Social norm]]'''. An acceptable standard or expectation within a group that is accepted and shared by a group's members.
 +
#*[[Ground rule]].  
 +
#*[[Ingroup favorism]]. Perspective in which one sees members of own [[ingroup]] as better than other people, and, often, people not in own group as all the same.
 +
#'''[[Status]]'''. A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.
 +
#*[[Status characteristics theory]]. A theory that states that differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups.
 +
#'''[[Cultural attitude]]'''. An [[attitude]] that someone has toward own and other [[culture]]s.
 +
#*[[Parochialism]]. Viewing the world solely through your own perspectives, leading to an inability to recognize differences between people.
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#*[[Geocentric attitude]]. A world-oriented view that focuses on using the best approaches and people from around the globe.
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#*[[Ethnocentric attitude]]. The parochial belief that the best work approaches and practices are those of the home country.
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#*[[Polycentric attitude]]. The view that the managers in the host country know the best work approaches and practices for running their businesses.
 
#'''[[Cultural intelligence]]'''. Cultural awareness and sensitivity skills.
 
#'''[[Cultural intelligence]]'''. Cultural awareness and sensitivity skills.
 
#*[[Dominant culture]]. A culture that expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organization's members.
 
#*[[Dominant culture]]. A culture that expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organization's members.
 
#*[[National culture]]. The values and attitudes shared by individuals from a specific country that shape their behavior and beliefs about what is important.
 
#*[[National culture]]. The values and attitudes shared by individuals from a specific country that shape their behavior and beliefs about what is important.
 
#*[[Strong culture]]. A culture in which the core values are intensely held and widely shared.
 
#*[[Strong culture]]. A culture in which the core values are intensely held and widely shared.
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#*[[Ethnicity]]. Social traits (such as cultural background or allegiance) that are shaped by a human population.
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#*[[Ethnicity]]. Social traits (such as [[cultural background]] or allegiance) that are shaped by a human population.
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#'''[[Culture attribute]]'''. A quality or feature regarded as a characteristic or inherent part of [[culture]].
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#'''[[Ethnic tendency]]'''. A quality or feature regarded as a characteristic or inherent part of [[culture]].
 
#*[[Power distance]]. A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.
 
#*[[Power distance]]. A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.
 
#*[[Collectivism]]. A national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.
 
#*[[Collectivism]]. A national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.
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#*[[Femininity]]. A national culture attribute that indicates little differentiation between male and female roles; a high rating indicates that women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of the society.
 
#*[[Femininity]]. A national culture attribute that indicates little differentiation between male and female roles; a high rating indicates that women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of the society.
 
#*[[Uncertainty avoidance]]. A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.
 
#*[[Uncertainty avoidance]]. A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.
 +
#'''[[Diversity]]'''. The extent to which members of a group are similar to, or different from, one another.
 +
#*[[Deep-level diversity]]. Differences in values, personality, and work preferences that become more important for determining similarity as people get to know each other.
 +
#*[[Discrimination]]. Noting of a difference between things; often we refer to [[unfair discrimination]], which means making judgments about individuals based on [[stereotype]]s regarding their demographic group. [[Unfair discrimination]] occurs when someone acts out their prejudicial attitudes toward people who are the targets of their prejudice.
 +
#[[File:Diversity.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Surface-level diversity]]]]'''[[Surface-level diversity]]'''. Differences in easily perceived characteristics, such as gender, race, ethnicity, age, or disability, that do not necessarily reflect the ways people think or feel, but may activate or trigger certain [[stereotype]]s.
 +
#*[[Biographical characteristic]]. A quantifiable personal characteristic such as age, gender, income, education, socioeconomic status, family size, marital status, race, and length of tenure that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. These characteristics are [[indicator]]s of [[surface-level diversity]].
 +
#*[[Race]]. The biological heritage (including skin color and associated traits) that people use to identify themselves.
 
#'''[[Preconceived attitude]]'''. An [[attitude]] that someone has already had about representatives of some group without learning about their actual characteristics.
 
#'''[[Preconceived attitude]]'''. An [[attitude]] that someone has already had about representatives of some group without learning about their actual characteristics.
 
#*[[Prejudice]]. A preconceived belief, opinion, or judgment toward a person or a group of people.
 
#*[[Prejudice]]. A preconceived belief, opinion, or judgment toward a person or a group of people.
 
#*[[Stereotyping]]. Judging someone on the basis of a perception of the group to which that person belongs.
 
#*[[Stereotyping]]. Judging someone on the basis of a perception of the group to which that person belongs.
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#'''[[Cultural attitude]]'''. An [[attitude]] that someone has toward own and other [[culture]]s.
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#*[[Stereotype threat]]. The degree to which we internally agree with the generally negative stereotyped perceptions of our groups.
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#*[[Parochialism]]. Viewing the world solely through your own perspectives, leading to an inability to recognize differences between people.
 
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#*[[Geocentric attitude]]. A world-oriented view that focuses on using the best approaches and people from around the globe.
 
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#*[[Ethnocentric attitude]]. The parochial belief that the best work approaches and practices are those of the home country.
 
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#*[[Polycentric attitude]]. The view that the managers in the host country know the best work approaches and practices for running their businesses.
 
 
#[[File:Conflict-vs-performance.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict]]]]'''[[Conflict]]'''. (1) Perceived incompatible differences that result in interference or opposition; (2) A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.
 
#[[File:Conflict-vs-performance.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict]]]]'''[[Conflict]]'''. (1) Perceived incompatible differences that result in interference or opposition; (2) A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.
 
#*[[Traditional view of conflict]]. The view that all conflict is bad and must be avoided.
 
#*[[Traditional view of conflict]]. The view that all conflict is bad and must be avoided.
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#*[[Interactionist view of conflict]]. The view that some conflict is necessary for a group to perform effectively.
 
#*[[Interactionist view of conflict]]. The view that some conflict is necessary for a group to perform effectively.
 
#[[File:Conflict-process.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict process]]]]'''[[Conflict process]]'''. A process that has five stages: (1) [[conflict potential]], potential opposition or incompatibility, (2) [[conflict personalization|cognition and personalization]], (3) [[conflict intention|intention]]s, (4) behavior, and (5) [[conflict outcome|outcome]]s.
 
#[[File:Conflict-process.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict process]]]]'''[[Conflict process]]'''. A process that has five stages: (1) [[conflict potential]], potential opposition or incompatibility, (2) [[conflict personalization|cognition and personalization]], (3) [[conflict intention|intention]]s, (4) behavior, and (5) [[conflict outcome|outcome]]s.
 +
#*[[File:Conflict-bargaining.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict bargaining]]]][[Conflict bargaining]]. Trying to get something from another party in a [[conflict]].
 
#'''[[Conflict potential]]'''. Latent qualities or abilities that may be developed and lead to a [[conflict]].
 
#'''[[Conflict potential]]'''. Latent qualities or abilities that may be developed and lead to a [[conflict]].
 
#*[[Dyadic conflict]]. [[Conflict]] that occurs between two people usually on personal grounds.
 
#*[[Dyadic conflict]]. [[Conflict]] that occurs between two people usually on personal grounds.
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#*[[Perceived conflict]]. Awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise.
 
#*[[Perceived conflict]]. Awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise.
 
#[[File:Conflict-intentions.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict intention]]s]]'''[[Conflict intention]]'''. One's aim, plan, or intention for [[conflict process]] and [[conflict outcome|its outcome]]s.
 
#[[File:Conflict-intentions.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict intention]]s]]'''[[Conflict intention]]'''. One's aim, plan, or intention for [[conflict process]] and [[conflict outcome|its outcome]]s.
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#*[[Collaborating]]. A situation in which the parties to a [[conflict]] each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties.
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#*[[Collaborating intent]]. The intention of a party of a [[conflict]] to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties.
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#*[[Competing]]. A desire to satisfy one's interests, regardless of the impact on the other party of the conflict.
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#*[[Competing intent]]. The intention of a party of a [[conflict]] to satisfy own interests, regardless of the impact on the other party of the conflict.
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#*[[Compromising]]. A situation in which each party to a [[conflict]] is willing to give up something.
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#*[[Compromising intent]]. The intention of a party of a [[conflict]] to give up something in order to gain something instead.
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#*[[Accommodating]]. The willingness of one party in a [[conflict]] to place the opponent's interests above his or her own.
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#*[[Accommodating intent]]. The intention of a party of a [[conflict]] to place the opponent's interests above his or her own.
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#*[[Smoothing]]. Emphasizing areas of agreement rather than areas of difference in order to ease the tensions and [[de-escalating|de-escalade]] the conflict in order to decrease it in extent, volume, or scope.
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#*[[Defending intent]]. The intention of a party of a [[conflict]] to withdraw from a [[conflict]] and [[defensive behavior|behave defensively]] without [[competing]], [[collaborating]], [[accommodating]], and/or [[compromising]].
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#*[[Avoiding]]. The desire to withdraw from or suppress a [[conflict]].
 
 
#'''[[Conflict outcome]]'''. An [[outcome]] from a [[conflict process]].
 
#'''[[Conflict outcome]]'''. An [[outcome]] from a [[conflict process]].
 
#*[[Functional conflict]]. A [[conflict]] that supports the goals of the group and improves its performance.
 
#*[[Functional conflict]]. A [[conflict]] that supports the goals of the group and improves its performance.
 
#*[[Dysfunctional conflict]]. A [[conflict]] that prevents a group from achieving its goals.
 
#*[[Dysfunctional conflict]]. A [[conflict]] that prevents a group from achieving its goals.
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#'''[[Conflict management]]'''. Handling a [[conflict]].
 
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#*[[Conflict resolution]]. [[Conflict management]] intended to resolve the [[conflict]].
 
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#*[[Conflict stimulation]]. [[Conflict management]] intended to create new [[conflict]]s or intensify the existing ones.
 
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#[[File:Emotional-intelligence.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Emotional intelligence]]]]'''[[Emotional intelligence]]'''. The ability to detect and to manage emotional cues and information.
 
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#*[[Emotional dissonance]]. Inconsistencies between the emotions people feel and the emotions they project.
 
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#*[[Surface acting]]. Hiding one's inner feelings and forgoing emotional expressions in response to display [[rule]]s.
 
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#*[[Deep acting]]. Trying to modify one's true inner feelings based on display [[rule]]s.
 
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#*[[Mindfulness]]. Objectively and deliberately evaluating the emotional situation in the moment.
 
  
 
===Roles===
 
===Roles===
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#'''[[Third party]]'''. An individual or [[group]] besides the two "parties" primarily involved in a situation, especially a dispute.
 
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#*[[Arbitrator]]. A [[third party]] to a negotiation who has the [[authority]] to dictate an [[agreement]].
 
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#*[[Conciliator]]. A trusted [[third party]] who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the opponent.
 
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#*[[Mediator]]. A neutral [[third party]] who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives.
 
 
#'''[[Social service provider]]'''. The government, private, and non-profit organization that is engaged in creating more effective organizations, building stronger communities, and promoting equality and opportunity.
 
#'''[[Social service provider]]'''. The government, private, and non-profit organization that is engaged in creating more effective organizations, building stronger communities, and promoting equality and opportunity.
 +
#'''[[Group member]]'''.
  
 
===Methods===
 
===Methods===
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#[[File:Status-quo.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Status quo]]]]'''[[Change support analysis]]'''. An evaluation of the stakeholder support of the  and, vice versa, the resistance to this [[proposed change|change]].
+
#'''[[Attitude survey]]'''. A survey that elicits responses from employees through questions about how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, or the organization.
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#*[[Restraining force]].  A force that hinders movement from the existing equilibrium ([[Kurt Lewin]]).
 
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#*[[Driving force]]. A force that directs behavior away from status quo ([[Kurt Lewin]]).
 
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#[[File:Conflict-resolution.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Conflict-resolution strategy]]]]'''[[Conflict-resolution strategy]]'''. A [[policy]] behind a [[conflict-resolution technique]] to be chosen in order to resolve the [[conflict]].
 
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#*[[Withdraw and avoid]]. The [[conflict-resolution strategy]] behind [[conflict-resolution technique]]s such as [[avoidance technique]]s that involve retreating from an actual or potential conflict situation; postponing the issue to be better prepared, to be resolved by others, and/or to fade with time.
 
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#*[[Smooth, de-escalade or accommodate]]. The [[conflict-resolution strategy]] behind [[conflict-resolution technique]]s that involve (a) emphasizing areas of agreement rather than areas of difference, (b) decreasing the [[conflict]] in extent, volume, or scope, and/or (c) conceding one's position to the needs of others to maintain harmony and relationships.
 
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#*[[Compromise and reconcile]]. The [[conflict-resolution strategy]] behind [[conflict-resolution technique]]s that involve searching for solutions that bring some degree of satisfaction to all parties in order to temporarily or partially resolve the conflict.
 
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#*[[Force and direct]]. The [[conflict-resolution strategy]] behind [[conflict-resolution technique]]s that involve pushing one's viewpoint at the expense of others; offering only win-lose solutions, usually enforced through a power position to resolve an emergency.
 
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#*[[Collaborate and problem solve]]. The [[conflict-resolution strategy]] behind [[conflict-resolution technique]]s that involve incorporating multiple viewpoints and insights from differing perspectives; requires a cooperative attitude and open dialogue that typically leads to consensus and commitment.
 
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#'''[[Means, motive, and opportunity]]'''. A common summation of the three aspects of an action; legally, that ''summation'' must be established before guilt can possibly be determined in a criminal proceeding.
 
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#'''[[Avoidance technique]]'''. An established way of avoiding an action, blame, change, and/or decision.<blockquote><table class="wikitable" width=100%><tr><th colspan="2">[[Avoidance technique]]</th></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center;">'''[[Action-avoidance technique]]'''</td><td><ul><li>[[Overconforming]] ([[over-conforming]]). An [[action-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of strict and even notorious following the rules and regulations.</li><li>[[Buck passing]] (or [[passing the buck]]). An [[action-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of shifting or transferring the responsibility for the execution of a task or decision to someone else, as well as the act of attributing to another person or group, one's own responsibility. It is often used to refer to a strategy in power politics whereby a state tries to get another state to deter or possibly fight an aggressor state while it remains on the sidelines.</li><li>[[Playing dumb]]. An [[action-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of avoiding the execution of an unwanted task or decision by falsely pleading ignorance and/or inability.</li><li>[[Stretching]]. (1) A physical exercise to deliberately stretch a specific muscle or muscle group in order to check and/or improve the muscle's functionality; (2) An [[action-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of prolonging the execution of a task and/or decision so that one person appears to be occupied; (3) A method to increase value of one's work through extending its length. For instance, a 4-month job would be valued more than a two-week task, so turning a two-week task into a 4-month job typically increases its value.</li><li>[[Stalling]] ([[stalling tactic]]). An [[action-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of doing something different from executing a target task intentionally in order to delay taking action or prevent someone from executing the target task for a period of time. Meaningless activity may also help one to appear more or less supportive publicly while doing little or nothing privately.</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center;">'''[[Blame-avoidance technique]]'''</td><td><ul><li>[[Buffing]]. A [[blame-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of rigorously documenting activity to project an image of competence and thoroughness.</li><li>[[Playing safe]]. A [[blame-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of evading situations that may reflect unfavorably. It includes taking on only projects with a high probability of success, having risky decisions approved by superiors, qualifying expressions of judgment, and taking neutral positions in conflicts.</li><li>[[Justifying]]. A [[blame-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of developing explanations that lessen one's responsibility for a negative outcome and/or apologizing to demonstrate remorse, or both.</li><li>[[Scapegoating]]. A [[blame-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of placing the blame for a negative outcome on external factors that are not entirely blameworthy.</li><li>[[Misrepresenting]]. A [[blame-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of manipulation of information by distortion, embellishment, deception, selective presentation, or obfuscation.</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center;">'''[[Change-avoidance technique]]'''</td><td><ul><li>[[Prevention]]. A [[change-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of trying to prevent a threatening change from occurring.</li><li>[[Self-protection]]. A [[change-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of acting in ways to protect one's self-interest during change by guarding information or other resources.</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center;">'''[[Decision-avoidance technique]]'''</td><td><ul><li>[[Additional information request]]. A [[decision-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of </li><li>[[Additional consideration request]]. A [[decision-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of </li><li>[[Additional approval statement]]. A [[decision-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of </li><li>[[Future consideration promise]]. A [[decision-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of </li><li>[[Partial agreement]]. A [[decision-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of </li><li>[[Understanding expression]]. A [[decision-avoidance technique]] based on the practice of </li></ul></td></tr></table></blockquote>
 
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#'''[[Conflict-management technique]]'''. An established [[procedure]], either a [[conflict-resolution technique|conflict-resolution]] or [[conflict-stimulation technique]], for [[conflict management]].<blockquote><table class="wikitable" width=100%><tr><th>Purpose</th><td style="text-align:center;">Category</td><th>[[Conflict-management technique]]</th></tr><tr><td rowspan="5" style="text-align:center;">[[Conflict-resolution technique|Resolution technique]]</td><th>[[Withdraw and avoid]]</th><td><ul><li>[[Conflict avoidance]]. Withdrawal from or suppression of the conflict.</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th>[[Smooth, de-escalade or accommodate]]</th><td><ul><li>[[Smoothing]]. Playing down differences while emphasizing common interests and areas of agreement between the conflicting parties.</li><li>[[De-escalating]]. Decreasing the [[conflict]] in extent, volume, or scope especially through [[smoothing]].</li><li>[[Accommodating]]. Conceding one's position to the needs of others to maintain harmony and relationships.</li><li>[[Conflict crashing]]. Expansion of the resources can create a win-win solution especially when a conflict is caused by the scarcity of a resource (for example, money, promotion, opportunities, office space, etc.).</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th>[[Compromise and reconcile]]</th><td><ul><li>[[Compromise]]. Each party to the conflict gives up something of value.</li><li>[[Engaging a third party]]. </li><li>[[Distributive bargaining]]. </li><li>[[Engaging a conciliator]]. </li></ul></td></tr><tr><th>[[Force and direct]]</th><td><ul><li>[[Authoritative conflict-resolution]]. In a formal setting, an [[authority]] may use its powers to resolve the conflict and then communicate its desires to the parties involved.</li><li>[[Engaging an arbitrator]]. </li></ul></td></tr><tr><th>[[Collaborate and problem solve]]</th><td><ul><li>[[Problem solving]]. Face-to-face meeting of the conflicting parties for the purpose of identifying the problem and resolving it through open discussion.</li><li>[[Integrative bargaining]]. </li><li>[[Engaging a mediator]]. </li><li>[[Superordinate goal setting]]. Creating a shared goal that cannot be attained without the cooperation of each of the conflicting parties.</li><li>[[Improving the human variables]]. Using behavioral change techniques such as human relations training to alter attitudes and behaviors that cause conflict.</li><li>[[Improving the structural variables]]. Changing the formal organization structure and the interaction patterns of conflicting parties through job redesign, transfers, creation of coordinating positions, and the like.</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fff;">'''[[Conflict-stimulation technique]]'''</td><td><ul><li>[[Provocative communication]]. Using ambiguous or threatening messages to increase conflict levels.</li><li>[[Bringing in outsiders]]. Adding employees to a group whose backgrounds, values, attitudes, or managerial styles differ from those of present members.</li><li>[[Stressing the structure]]. Realigning [[workgroup]]s, altering rules and regulations, increasing interdependence, and making similar structural changes to disrupt the status quo.</li><li>[[Appointing a devil's advocate]]. Designating a critic to purposely argue against the majority positions held by the group.</li></ul></td></tr></table></blockquote>
 
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#*[[Conflict-resolution technique]]. An established way of resolving the [[conflict]].
 
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#*[[Conflict-stimulation technique]]. An established way of stimulating the [[conflict]].
 
  
 
===Instruments===
 
===Instruments===
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#[[File:Group-development.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Group development]]]]'''[[Group development]]'''. A [[model]] that describes the [[process]] of developing a [[group]].  
+
#[[File:Group-development.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Tuckman's model]] of [[group development]]]]'''[[Group development]]'''. A [[model]] that describes the [[process]] of developing a [[group]].  
 
#*[[Forming stage]]. The first stage of [[group development]] in which people join the group and then define the group's purpose, structure, and leadership.
 
#*[[Forming stage]]. The first stage of [[group development]] in which people join the group and then define the group's purpose, structure, and leadership.
 
#*[[Storming stage]]. The second stage of [[group development]], characterized by [[intragroup conflict]].
 
#*[[Storming stage]]. The second stage of [[group development]], characterized by [[intragroup conflict]].
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#*[[Performing stage]]. The fourth stage of [[group development]] when the group is fully functional and works on group task.
 
#*[[Performing stage]]. The fourth stage of [[group development]] when the group is fully functional and works on group task.
 
#*[[Adjourning stage]]. The fifth stage of [[group development]] for temporary groups during which group members are concerned with wrapping up activities rather than task performance.
 
#*[[Adjourning stage]]. The fifth stage of [[group development]] for temporary groups during which group members are concerned with wrapping up activities rather than task performance.
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#[[File:Punctuated-equilibrium.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Punctuated-equillibrium model]]]]'''[[Punctuated-equilibrium model]]'''. A set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity.
+
#[[File:Punctuated-equilibrium.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Punctuated-equilibrium model]]]]'''[[Punctuated-equilibrium model]]'''. A set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity.
 
#*[[Punctuated equilibrium]]. The hypothesis that evolutionary development is marked by isolated episodes of rapid speciation between long periods of little or no change.
 
#*[[Punctuated equilibrium]]. The hypothesis that evolutionary development is marked by isolated episodes of rapid speciation between long periods of little or no change.
  
 
===Practices===
 
===Practices===
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*Three sciences contribute to studies of [[social rationale]]:
+
*'''[[GLOBE program]]''' ([[Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness program]]) is the research project that studies cross-cultural leadership behaviors.
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*#'''[[Social psychology]]'''. An area of [[psychology]] that blends concepts from [[psychology]] and [[sociology]] to focus on the influence of people on one other.
 
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*#'''[[Sociology]]'''. The study of people in relation to their social environment and culture.
 
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*#'''[[Anthropology]]'''. The study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.
 
−
*'''[[GLOBE project]]''' ([[Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness project]]) is the research project that studies cross-cultural leadership behaviors.
 
  
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''[[User Experience Quarter]] is the successor lecture. In the [[enterprise analysis]] series, the next lecture is [[Regulatory Сompliance Quarter]].''
+
''[[User Experience Quarter]] is the successor lecture. In the [[enterprise research]] series, the next lecture is [[Regulatory Сompliance Quarter]].''
  
 
==Materials==
 
==Materials==
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==See also==
 
==See also==
 +
 +
[[Category:Septem Artes Administrativi]][[Category:Lecture notes]]

Latest revision as of 20:51, 21 June 2020

Social Rationale Quarter (hereinafter, the Quarter) is a lecture introducing the learners to social research primarily through key topics related to social rationale. The Quarter is the second of four lectures of Social Quadrivium, which is the fifth of seven modules of Septem Artes Administrativi (hereinafter, the Course). The Course is designed to introduce the learners to general concepts in business administration, management, and organizational behavior.


Outline

Communication Quarter is the predecessor lecture. In the enterprise research series, the previous lecture is Human Perceptions Quarter.

Concepts

  1. Social rationale. A set of reasons or a logical basis for a course of action or a particular belief of a group of people.
  2. Group. Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular goals.
    • Informal group. A group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined; such a group appears in response to the need for social contact.
    • Formal group. A designated workgroup defined by an organization's structure.
    • Interacting group. A typical group in which members interact with each other face to face.
    • Reference group. An important group to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose culture individuals are likely to conform.
  3. Social identity theory. Perspective that considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups.
    • Outgroup (out-group). (1) Those people who do not belong to a specific ingroup; the inverse of an ingroup, which can mean everyone outside one's group; (2) An identified other group.
    • Ingroup (in-group). An exclusive, typically small, group of people with a shared interest or identity.
    • Faultiness. The perceived divisions that split groups into two or more subgroups based on individual differences such as sex, race, age, work experience, and education.
    • Boundary spanning. When individuals form relationships outside their formally assigned groups.
  4. Group trait. An enduring characteristic that describes a group's behavior. The major trait is members of the group themselves, as well as their number, their combination of personalities, values, beliefs, and attitudes. The other traits include group cohesiveness, diversity, and group culture.
  5. Cohesiveness and norms
    Group cohesiveness. The extend to which members of a group support and validate one another, attracted and emotionally attached to one another, share the group's goals, and motivated toward the group.
    • Group cohesion. A situation when group members are emotionally attached to one another and motivated toward the group because of their attachment.
  6. Groupthink. (1) A phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action; (2) A situation in which a group exerts extensive pressure on an individual to align her or his opinion with others; (3) An aggregate of opinions of various group members.
    • Conformity. The adjustment of one's behavior to align with the group culture.
    • Hawthorne Studies. A series of studies during the 1920s and 1930s that provided new insights into individual and group behavior.
    • Groupshift. A change between a group's decision and individual decision that a member within the group would make; the shift can be toward either conservatism or greater risk but it generally is toward a more extreme version of the group's original position.
  7. Social norm. An acceptable standard or expectation within a group that is accepted and shared by a group's members.
  8. Status. A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.
  9. Cultural attitude. An attitude that someone has toward own and other cultures.
    • Parochialism. Viewing the world solely through your own perspectives, leading to an inability to recognize differences between people.
    • Geocentric attitude. A world-oriented view that focuses on using the best approaches and people from around the globe.
    • Ethnocentric attitude. The parochial belief that the best work approaches and practices are those of the home country.
    • Polycentric attitude. The view that the managers in the host country know the best work approaches and practices for running their businesses.
  10. Cultural intelligence. Cultural awareness and sensitivity skills.
    • Dominant culture. A culture that expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organization's members.
    • National culture. The values and attitudes shared by individuals from a specific country that shape their behavior and beliefs about what is important.
    • Strong culture. A culture in which the core values are intensely held and widely shared.
    • Ethnicity. Social traits (such as cultural background or allegiance) that are shaped by a human population.
  11. Ethnic tendency. A quality or feature regarded as a characteristic or inherent part of culture.
    • Power distance. A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.
    • Collectivism. A national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.
    • Individualism. A national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups.
    • Long-term orientation. A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence.
    • Short-term orientation. A national culture attribute that emphasizes the present and accepts change.
    • Masculinity. A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism.
    • Femininity. A national culture attribute that indicates little differentiation between male and female roles; a high rating indicates that women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of the society.
    • Uncertainty avoidance. A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.
  12. Diversity. The extent to which members of a group are similar to, or different from, one another.
    • Deep-level diversity. Differences in values, personality, and work preferences that become more important for determining similarity as people get to know each other.
    • Discrimination. Noting of a difference between things; often we refer to unfair discrimination, which means making judgments about individuals based on stereotypes regarding their demographic group. Unfair discrimination occurs when someone acts out their prejudicial attitudes toward people who are the targets of their prejudice.
  13. Surface-level diversity
    Surface-level diversity. Differences in easily perceived characteristics, such as gender, race, ethnicity, age, or disability, that do not necessarily reflect the ways people think or feel, but may activate or trigger certain stereotypes.
    • Biographical characteristic. A quantifiable personal characteristic such as age, gender, income, education, socioeconomic status, family size, marital status, race, and length of tenure that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. These characteristics are indicators of surface-level diversity.
    • Race. The biological heritage (including skin color and associated traits) that people use to identify themselves.
  14. Preconceived attitude. An attitude that someone has already had about representatives of some group without learning about their actual characteristics.
    • Prejudice. A preconceived belief, opinion, or judgment toward a person or a group of people.
    • Stereotyping. Judging someone on the basis of a perception of the group to which that person belongs.
    • Stereotype threat. The degree to which we internally agree with the generally negative stereotyped perceptions of our groups.
  15. Conflict
    Conflict. (1) Perceived incompatible differences that result in interference or opposition; (2) A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.
  16. Conflict process
    Conflict process. A process that has five stages: (1) conflict potential, potential opposition or incompatibility, (2) cognition and personalization, (3) intentions, (4) behavior, and (5) outcomes.
  17. Conflict potential. Latent qualities or abilities that may be developed and lead to a conflict.
  18. Conflict personalization. A situation in the conflict process in which one or more parties feel or perceive that the conflict exists. is a perception issue, second step of the Conflict Process.
    • Felt conflict. Emotional involvement in a conflict that creates anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility.
    • Perceived conflict. Awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise.
  19. Conflict intentions
    Conflict intention. One's aim, plan, or intention for conflict process and its outcomes.
  20. Conflict outcome. An outcome from a conflict process.

Roles

  1. Social service provider. The government, private, and non-profit organization that is engaged in creating more effective organizations, building stronger communities, and promoting equality and opportunity.
  2. Group member.

Methods

  1. Attitude survey. A survey that elicits responses from employees through questions about how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, or the organization.

Instruments

  1. Tuckman's model of group development
    Group development. A model that describes the process of developing a group.
  2. Punctuated-equilibrium model
    Punctuated-equilibrium model. A set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity.
    • Punctuated equilibrium. The hypothesis that evolutionary development is marked by isolated episodes of rapid speciation between long periods of little or no change.

Practices

User Experience Quarter is the successor lecture. In the enterprise research series, the next lecture is Regulatory Сompliance Quarter.

Materials

Recorded audio

Recorded video

Live sessions

Texts and graphics

See also

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