Learning Theories 6e by Schunk

Learning Theories 6e by Schunk is the 6th edition of the Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective textbook authored by Dale H. Schunk, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro and published by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA in 2012.

• Accommodation. The process of changing internal structures to provide consistency with external reality.
• Accretion. Encoding new information in terms of existing schemata.
• Achievement Motivation. The striving to be competent in effortful activities.
• Act. A class of movements that produces an outcome.
• Action Control. Potentially modifiable self-regulatory volitional skills and strategies.
• Action Control Theory. Theory stressing the role of volitional processes in behavior.
• Activation Level. Extent that information in memory is being processed or is capable of being processed quickly; information in an active state is quickly accessible.
• Actualizing Tendency. Innate motive that is a precursor to other motives and is oriented toward personal growth, autonomy, and freedom from external control.
• Adaptation. See Equilibration.
• Adapting Instruction. Tailoring instructional conditions at the system, course, or individual class level to match important individual differences to ensure equal learning opportunities for all students.
• Advance Organizer. Device that helps connect new material with prior learning, usually with a broad statement presented at the outset of a lesson.
• Affective Learning Technique. Specific procedure included in a learning strategy to create a favorable psychological climate for learning by helping the learner cope with anxiety, develop positive beliefs, set work goals, establish a place and time for working, or minimize distractions.
• All-or-None Learning. View that a response is learned by proceeding from zero or low strength to full strength rapidly (e.g., during one trial).
• Amygdala. Part of the brain involved in regulating emotion and aggression.
• Analogical Reasoning. Problem-solving strategy in which one draws an analogy between the problem situation and a situation with which one is familiar, works through the problem in the familiar domain, and relates the solution to the problem situation.
• Apprenticeship. Situation in which novice works with expert in joint work-related activities.
• Archival Record. Permanent record that exists independently of other assessments.
• Artificial Intelligence. Programming computers to engage in human activities such as thinking, using language, and solving problems.
• Assessment. The process of determining students' status with respect to educational variables.
• Assimilation. The process of fitting external reality to existing cognitive structures.
• Assistive Technology. Equipment adapted for use by students with disabilities.
• Associative Shifting. Process of changing behavior whereby responses made to a particular stimulus eventually are made to a different stimulus as a consequence of altering the stimulus slightly on repeated trials.
• Associative Strength. Strength of association between a stimulus and a response.
• Associative Structure. Means of representing information in long-term memory; bits of information that occur close together in time or that otherwise are associated and stored together so that when one is remembered, the other also is remembered.
• Associative Writing. Writing that reflects one's knowledge of a topic without regard for elements of style.
• Asynchronous Learning. Nonreal-time interactions.
• Attention. The process of selecting some environmental inputs for further information processing.
• Attribution. Perceived cause of an outcome.
• Attribution Retraining. Intervention strategy aimed at altering students' attributional beliefs, usually from dysfunctional attributions (e.g., failure attributed to low ability) to those conducive to motivation and learning (failure attributed to low effort).
• Automaticity. Cognitive processing with little or no conscious awareness.
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). The part of the nervous system that regulates involuntary behaviors involving the heart, lungs, glands, and muscles.
• Axon. Long thread of brain tissue in a neuron that sends messages.
• Baby Biography. A report on a single child based on a series of observations over a lengthy period.
• Backup Reinforcer. A reinforcer that one receives in exchange for a generalized reinforcer.
• Balance Theory. Theory postulating the tendency for people to balance relations between persons, situations, and events.
• Behavior Modification (Therapy). Systematic application of behavioral learning principles to facilitate adaptive behaviors.
• Behavior Rating. An estimate of how often a behavior occurs in a given time.
• Behavioral Objective. Statement describing the behaviors a student will perform as a result of instruction, the conditions under which behaviors will be performed, and the criteria for assessing behaviors to determine whether the objective has been accomplished.
• Behavioral Theory. Theory that views learning as a change in the form or frequency of behavior as a consequence of environmental events.
• Biologically Primary Ability. An ability that is largely biologically based.
• Biologically Secondary Ability. An ability that is largely culturally taught.
• Blended Model. Instruction that combines face-to-face instruction with e-learning.
• Bottom-Up Processing. Pattern recognition of visual stimuli that proceeds from analysis of features to building a meaningful representation.
• Brain. The primary organ in the nervous system that regulates cognition, motivation, and emotions.
• Brainstem. That part of the central nervous system that links the lower brain with the middle brain and hemispheres.
• Brainstorming. Problem-solving strategy that comprises defining the problem, generating possible solutions, deciding on criteria to use in judging solutions, and applying criteria to select the best solution.
• Branching Program. Type of programmed instruction in which students complete different sequences depending on how well they perform.
• Broca's Area. Brain part in the left frontal lobe that controls speech production.
• Buggy Algorithm. An incorrect rule for solving a mathematical problem.
• Capital. Socioeconomic indicator that includes one's financial, material, human, and social resources.
• CAT Scan. Computerized axial tomography; technology that provides three-dimensional images used to detect body abnormalities.
• Categorical Clustering. Recalling items in groups based on similar meaning or membership in the same category.
• Categorization Style. Cognitive style referring to the criteria used to perceive objects as similar to one another.
• Cell Assembly. In Hebb's theory, a structure that includes cells in the cortex and subcortical centers.
• Central Nervous System (CNS). The part of the nervous system that includes the spinal cord and the brain.
• Cerebellum. Part of the brain that regulates body balance, muscular control, movement, and body posture.
• Cerebral Cortex. The thin, outer covering of the cerebrum.
• Cerebrum. The largest part of the brain that includes left and right hemispheres; involved in cognition and learning.
• Chaining. The linking of three-term contingencies so that each response alters the environment and that altered condition serves as a stimulus for the next response.
• Chameleon Effect. Nonconscious mimicking of behaviors and mannerisms of persons in one's social environment.
• Chunking. Combining information in a meaningful fashion.
• Classical Conditioning. Descriptive term for Pavlov's theory in which a neutral stimulus becomes conditioned to elicit a response through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus.
• Closed-Loop Theory. Theory of motor skill learning postulating that people develop perceptual traces of motor movements through practice and feedback.
• Cognitive Behavior Modification. Behavior modification techniques that incorporate learners' thoughts (overt and covert) as discriminative and reinforcing stimuli.
• Cognitive Consistency. Idea that people have a need to make behaviors and cognitions consistent.
• Cognitive Constructivism. See Dialectical Constructivism.
• Cognitive Dissonance. Mental tension that is produced by conflicting cognitions and that has drivelike properties leading to reduction.
• Cognitive Map. Internal plan comprising expectancies of which actions are required to attain one's goal.
• Cognitive Modeling. Modeled explanation and demonstration incorporating verbalizations of the model's thoughts and reasons for performing given actions.
• Cognitive Style. Stable variation among learners in ways of perceiving, organizing, processing, and remembering information.
• Cognitive Tempo (Response Tempo). Cognitive style referring to the willingness to pause and reflect on the accuracy of information in a situation of response uncertainty.
• Cognitive Theory. Theory that views learning as the acquisition of knowledge and cognitive structures due to information processing.
• Collective Teacher Efficacy. Perceptions of teachers in a school that their efforts as a whole will positively affect students.
• Comer Program. See School Development Program.
• Comparative Organizer. Type of advance organizer that introduces new material by drawing an analogy with familiar material.
• Comprehension. Attaching meaning to verbal (printed or spoken) information and using it for a particular purpose.
• Comprehension Monitoring. Cognitive activity directed toward determining whether one is properly applying knowledge to material to be learned, evaluating whether one understands the material, deciding that the strategy is effective or that a better strategy is needed, and knowing why strategy use improves learning. Monitoring procedures include self-questioning, rereading, paraphrasing, and checking consistencies.
• Computer-Based Instruction (Computer-Assisted Instruction). Interactive instruction in which a computer system provides information and feedback to students and receives student input.
• Computer-Based Learning Environment. Setting that includes computer technology used for learning in various ways, including with simulations, computer-based instruction, and hypermedia/multimedia.
• Computer Learning. Learning that occurs with the aid of a computer.
• Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC). Technological applications that allow users to communicate with one another (e.g., distance education, computer conferencing).
• Concept. Labeled set of objects, symbols, or events sharing common characteristics (critical attributes).
• Concept Learning. Identifying attributes, generalizing them to new examples, and discriminating examples from nonexamples.
• Conception of Ability. One's belief/theory about the nature of intelligence (ability) and how it changes over time.
• Concrete Operational Stage. Third of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, encompassing roughly ages 7 to 11.
• Conditional Knowledge. Knowledge of when to employ forms of declarative and procedural knowledge and why doing so is important.
• Conditional Regard. Regard that is contingent on certain actions.
• Conditioned Response (CR). The response elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS). A stimulus that, when repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response similar to the unconditioned response.
• Conditioning Theory. See Behavioral Theory.
• Conditions of Learning. Circumstances that prevail when learning occurs and that include internal conditions (prerequisite skills and cognitive processing requirements of the learner) and external conditions (environmental stimuli that support the learner's cognitive processes).
• Connectionism. Descriptive term for Thorndike's theory postulating learning as the forming of connections between sensory experiences (perceptions of stimuli or events) and neural impulses that manifest themselves behaviorally.
• Connectionist Model. Computer simulation of learning processes in which learning is linked with neural system processing, where impulses fire across synapses to form connections.
• Consolidation. The process of stabilizing and strengthening neural (synaptic) connections.
• Constructivism. Doctrine stating that learning takes place in contexts and that learners form or construct much of what they learn and understand as a function of their experiences in situations.
• Constructivist Theory. See Constructivism.
• Contiguity (Contiguous Conditioning). The basic principle of Guthrie's theory, which refers to learning that results from a pairing close in time of a response with a stimulus or situation.
• Contingency Contract. Written or oral agreement between teacher and student specifying what work the student must accomplish to earn a particular reinforcer.
• Continuous Reinforcement. Reinforcement for every response.
• Control Processes (Executive Processes). Cognitive activities that regulate the flow of information through the processing system.
• Cooperative Learning. Situation in which a group of students work on a task that is too great for any one student to complete and in which an objective is to develop in students the ability to work collaboratively.
• Coping Model. Model who initially demonstrates the typical fears and deficiencies of observers but gradually demonstrates improved performance and self-confidence in his or her capabilities.
• Corpus Callosum. Band of fibers in the brain that connects the right and left hemispheres.
• Correlational Research. A study in which an investigator explores naturally existing relations among variables.
• Cortex. See Cerebral Cortex.
• Cortisol. Bodily hormone that when elevated in babies can retard their brain development.
• Declarative Knowledge. Knowledge that something is the case; knowledge of facts, beliefs, organized passages, and events of a story.
• Decoding. Deciphering printed symbols or making letter-sound correspondences.
• Deductive Reasoning. Process of deriving specific points from general principles.
• Deep Structure. The meaning of the speech and syntax of a language.
• Dendrite. Elongated brain tissue surrounding a neuron that receives messages.
• Descriptive Research. See Qualitative Research.
• Development. Changes in people over time that follow an orderly pattern and enhance survival.
• Developmental Status. What an individual is capable of doing given his or her present level of development.
• Developmentally Appropriate Instruction. Instruction matched to students' developmental levels.
• Dialectical Constructivism. Constructivist perspective stating that knowledge derives from interactions between persons and their environments.
• Dialogue. Conversation between two or more persons while engaged in a learning task.
• Dichotic Listening. Hearing two verbal inputs simultaneously.
• Differentiated Task Structure. Class situation in which all students work on different tasks and materials or methods are tailored to students' needs.
• Digit-Span Task. Information processing task in which participants hear a series of digits and then attempt to recall them in the same order.
• Direct Observations. Instances of behavior that are observed.
• Discovery Learning. A type of inductive reasoning in which one obtains knowledge by formulating and testing hypotheses through hands-on experiences.
• Discrimination. Responding differently, depending on the stimulus.
• Discriminative Stimulus. The stimulus to which one responds in the operant model of conditioning.
• Disinhibition. See Inhibition/Disinhibition.
• Distance Learning (Distance Education). Instruction that originates at one site and is transmitted to students at one or more remote sites; it may include two-way interactive capabilities.
• Domain Specificity. Discrete declarative and procedural knowledge structures.
• Dopamine. A chemical neurotransmitter that can lead to the brain being more sensitive to the pleasurable effects of drugs and alcohol.
• Drive. Internal force that energizes and propels one into action.
• Dual-Code Theory. The view that long-term memory represents knowledge with a verbal system that includes knowledge expressed in language and an imaginal system that stores visual and spatial information.
• Dual-Memory Model of Information Processing. See Two-Store (Dual) Memory Model of Information Processing.
• Duration Measure. Amount of time a behavior occurs during a given period.
• Echo. Sensory memory for auditory sounds.
• EEG. Electroencephalograph; measures electrical patterns caused by movement of neurons and used to investigate brain disorders.
• Effectance Motivation (Mastery Motivation). Motivation to interact effectively with one's environment and control critical aspects.
• Efficacy Expectations. See Self-Efficacy.
• Ego Involvement. Motivational state characterized by self-preoccupation, a desire to avoid looking incompetent, and viewing learning as a means to the end of avoiding appearing to lack ability.
• Egocentrism. Cognitive inability to take the perspective of another person.
• Eidetic Imagery. Photographic memory in which an image appears and disappears in segments.
• Elaboration. The process of expanding upon new information by adding to it or linking it to what one already knows.
• Elaboration. Theory of Instruction Means of presenting instruction in which one begins with a general view of the content, moves to specific details, and returns later to the general view with review and practice.
• E-Learning. Learning through electronic means.
• Electronic Bulletin Board (Conference). Electronic means for posting messages and participating in a discussion (chat group).
• Electronic Media. Media that operate through electronic means including televisions, cell phones, video games, Web social networks, and e-mail.
• Empiricism. The doctrine that experience is the only source of knowledge.
• Enactive Learning. Learning through actual performance.
• Enactive Representation. Representing knowledge through motor responses.
• Encoding. The process of putting new, incoming information into the information processing system and preparing it for storage in long-term memory.
• Encoding Specificity Hypothesis. The idea that retrieval of information from long-term memory is maximized when retrieval cues match those present during encoding.
• Endogenous Constructivism. Constructivist perspective stating that people construct mental structures out of preexisting structures and not directly from environmental information.
• Entity Theory. The belief that abilities represent fixed traits over which one has little control.
• Episodic Memory. Memory of particular times, places, persons, and events, which is personal and autobiographical.
• Epistemology. Study of the origin, nature, limits, and methods of knowledge.
• Equilibration. A biological drive to produce an optimal state of equilibrium; it includes the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation.
• Event-Related Potentials. Changes in brain waves measured while individuals are engaged in various tasks.
• Evoked Potentials,. See Event-Related Potentials.
• Executive Processes. See Control (Executive) Processes.
• Exogenous Constructivism. Constructivist perspective stating that the acquisition of knowledge represents a reconstruction of structures that exist in the external world.
• Expectancy-Value Theory. Psychological theory postulating that behavior is a function of how much one values a particular outcome and one's expectation of obtaining that outcome as a result of performing that behavior.
• Experimental Research. A study in which an investigator systematically varies conditions (independent variables) and observes changes in outcomes (dependent variables).
• Expert. A person who has attained a high level of competence in a domain.
• Expert System. Computer system that is programmed with a large knowledge base and that behaves intelligently by solving problems and providing instruction.
• Expository Organizer. Type of advance organizer that introduces new material with concept definitions and generalizations.
• Expository Teaching. Deductive teaching strategy in which material is presented in an organized and meaningful fashion with general ideas followed by specific points.
• Extinction. Decrease in intensity and disappearance of a conditioned response due to repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.
• Extrinsic Motivation. Engaging in a task as a means to the end of attaining an outcome (reward).
• Facilitator . One who arranges resources and shares feelings and thoughts with students in order to promote learning.
• Fatigue Method of Behavioral Change. Altering behavior by transforming the cue for engaging in the behavior into a cue for avoiding it through repeated presentation.
• Fear of Failure. The tendency to avoid an achievement goal that derives from one's belief concerning the anticipated negative consequences of failing.
• Feature Analysis. Theory of perception postulating that people learn the critical features of stimuli, which are stored in long-term memory as images or verbal codes and compared with environmental inputs.
• Field Dependence and Independence. Cognitive style referring to the extent that one is dependent on or distracted by the context in which a stimulus or event occurs. Also called global and analytical functioning.
• Field Expectancy. Perceived relation between two stimuli or among a stimulus, response, and stimulus.
• Field Research. Study conducted where participants live, work, or go to school.
• Figure-Ground Relation. See Gestalt Principles.
• Filter Theory (Bottleneck Theory). Theory of attention contending that information not perceived is not processed beyond the sensory register.
• First Signal System. See Primary Signals.
• Flow. Total involvement in an activity.
• FMRI. See Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
• Forgetting. Loss of information from memory or inability to recall information due to interference or improper retrieval cues.
• Formal Operational Stage. Fourth of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, encompassing roughly ages 11 to adult.
• Free Recall. Recalling stimuli in any order.
• Frequency Count. Frequency of a behavior in a given time period.
• Frontal Lobe. Brain lobe responsible for processing information relating to memory, planning, decision making, goal setting, and creativity; also contains the primary motor cortex regulating muscular movements.
• Functional Analysis of Behavior. Process of determining the external variables of which behavior is a function.
• Functional Fixedness. Failure to perceive different uses for objects or new configurations of elements in a situation.
• Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). Technology measuring magnetic flow in the brain caused by performance of mental tasks that fires neurons and causes blood flow; image compared to that of the brain at rest to show responsible regions.
• Functional Theories of Development. Theories postulating the types of functions or processes that a child is able to perform at a particular time.
• Functionalism. Doctrine postulating that mental processes and behaviors of living organisms help them adapt to their environments.
• Game. Activity that creates an enjoyable learning context by linking material to sport, adventure, or fantasy.
• General Skill. Skill applying to many domains (e.g., goal setting).
• Generalization. Occurrence of a response to a new stimulus or in a situation other than that present during original learning. See also Transfer.
• Generalized Reinforcer. A secondary reinforcer that becomes paired with more than one primary or secondary reinforcer.
• Generate-and-Test Strategy. Problem-solving strategy in which one generates (thinks of) a possible problem solution and tests its effectiveness.
• Gestalt Principles. Figure-ground relationship: A perceptual field is composed of a figure against a background. Proximity: Elements in a perceptual field are viewed as belonging together according to their closeness in space or time. Similarity: Perceptual field elements similar in such respects as size or color are viewed as belonging together. Common direction: Elements of a perceptual field appearing to constitute a pattern or flow in the same direction are perceived as a figure. Simplicity: People organize perceptual fields in simple, regular features. Closure: People fill in incomplete patterns or experiences.
• Gestalt Psychology. Psychological theory of perception and learning stressing the organization of sensory experiences.
• Glial Cell. Brain cell that serves to nourish and cleanse neurons.
• Global and Analytical Functioning. See Field Dependence and Independence.
• Goal. The behavior (outcome) that one is consciously trying to perform (attain).
• Goal Orientations. Reasons for engaging in academic tasks.
• Goal Setting. Process of establishing a standard or objective to serve as the aim of one's actions.
• Grammar. The underlying abstract set of rules governing a language.
• Grouping Structure. Instructional method for linking attainment of students' goals. Cooperative -- positive link; competitive -- negative link; individualistic -- no link.
• Habit. Behavior established to many cues.
• Hedonism. Philosophical position that humans seek pleasure and avoid pain.
• Heuristic. A method for solving problems in which one employs principles (rules of thumb) that usually lead to a solution.
• Higher-Order Conditioning. Use of a conditioned stimulus to condition a new, neutral stimulus by pairing the two stimuli.
• Hill Climbing. See Working Forward.
• Hippocampus. Brain structure responsible for memory of the immediate past and helps to establish information in long-term memory.
• Holistic. Idea that we must study people's behaviors, thoughts, and feelings together and not in isolation.
• Homeostasis. Optimal levels of physiological states.
• Hope for Success. The tendency to approach an achievement goal that derives from one's subjective estimate of the likelihood of succeeding.
• Humanistic Theory. Theory emphasizing people's capabilities to make choices and seek control over their lives.
• Hypermedia. See Multimedia.
• Hypothalamus. Part of the autonomic nervous system that controls body functions needed to maintain homeostasis and also is involved in emotional reactions.
• Hypothesis. Assumption that can be empirically tested.
• Icon. Sensory memory for visual inputs.
• Iconic Representation. Representing knowledge with mental images.
• Identical Elements. View of transfer postulating that application of a response in a situation other than the one in which it was learned depends on the number of features (stimuli) common to the two situations.
• Imitation. Copying the observed behaviors and verbalizations of others.
• Implicit Theories. Students' beliefs about themselves, others, and their environments.
• Inclusion. Process of integrating students with disabilities into regular classroom instruction.
• Incompatible Response Method of Behavioral Change. Altering behavior by pairing the cue for the undesired behavior with a response incompatible with (i.e., that cannot be performed at the same time as) the undesired response.
• Incremental Learning. View that learning becomes established gradually through repeated performances (exemplified by Thorndike's theory).
• Incremental Theory. The belief that abilities are skills that can improve through learning.
• Inductive Reasoning. Process of formulating general principles based on specific examples.
• Information Processing. Sequence and execution of cognitive events.
• Inhibition. In Pavlov's theory, a type of neural excitation that works antagonistically to an excitation producing conditioning and that diminishes the conditioned response in intensity or extinguishes it.
• Inhibition/Disinhibition. Strengthening/weakening of inhibitions over behaviors previously learned, which results from observing consequences of the behaviors performed by models.
• Inquiry Teaching. Socratic teaching method in which learners formulate and test hypotheses, differentiate necessary from sufficient conditions, make predictions, and decide when more information is needed.
• Insight. A sudden perception, awareness of a solution, or transformation from an unlearned to a learned state.
• Instinct. A natural behavior or capacity.
• Instructional Quality. The degree to which instruction is effective, efficient, appealing, and economical in promoting student performance and attitude toward learning.
• Instructional Scaffolding. See Scaffolding.
• Instructional Self-Efficacy. Personal beliefs about one's capabilities to help students learn.
• Interference. Blockage of the spread of activation across memory networks.
• Intermittent Reinforcement. Reinforcement for some but not all responses.
• Internalization. Transforming information acquired from the social environment into mechanisms of self-regulating control.
• Internet. International collection of computer networks.
• Interval Schedule. Reinforcement is contingent on the first response being made after a specific time period.
• Interview. Situation in which interviewer presents questions or points to discuss and respondent answers orally.
• Intrinsic Motivation. Engaging in a task for no obvious reward except for the activity itself (the activity is the means and the end).
• Introspection. Type of self-analysis in which individuals verbally report their immediate perceptions following exposure to objects or events.
• Irreversibility. The cognitive belief that once something is done it cannot be changed.
• Keyword Method. Mnemonic technique in which one generates an image of a word sounding like the item to be learned and links that image with the meaning of the item to be learned.
• Laboratory Research. Study conducted in a controlled setting.
• Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Mental structure that forms and verifies transformational rules to account for overt language.
• Latent Learning. Learning that occurs from environmental interactions in the absence of a goal or reinforcement.
• Lateralization. See Localization.
• Law of Disuse. That part of the Law of Exercise postulating that the strength of a connection between a situation and response is decreased when the connection is not made over a period of time.
• Law of Effect. The strength of a connection is influenced by the consequences of performing the response in the situation: Satisfying consequences strengthen a connection; annoying consequences weaken a connection. Eventually modified by Thorndike to state that annoying consequences do not weaken connections.
• Law of Exercise. Learning (unlearning) occurs through repetition (nonrepetition) of a response. Eventually discarded by Thorndike.
• Law of Readiness. When an organism is prepared to act, to do so is satisfying and not to do so is annoying. When an organism is not prepared to act, forcing it to act is annoying.
• Law of Use. That part of the Law of Exercise postulating that the strength of a connection between a situation and response is increased when the connection is made.
• Learned Helplessness. Psychological state involving a disturbance in motivation, cognition, and emotions due to previously experienced uncontrollability (lack of contingency between action and outcome).
• Learning. An enduring change in behavior or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion resulting from practice or other forms of experience.
• Learning Goal. A goal of acquiring knowledge, behaviors, skills, or strategies.
• Learning Hierarchy. Organized set of intellectual skills.
• Learning Method. Specific procedure or technique included in a learning strategy and used to attain a learning goal.
• Learning Strategy. Systematic plan oriented toward regulating academic work and producing successful task performance.
• Learning Style. See Cognitive Style.
• Levels of Processing (Depth of Processing). Conceptualization of memory according to the type of processing that information receives rather than the processing's location.
• Linear Program. Programmed instructional materials that all students complete in the same sequence.
• Localization. Control of specific functions by different sides of the brain or in different areas of the brain.
• Locus of Control. Motivational concept referring to generalized control over outcomes; individuals may believe that outcomes occur independently of how they act (external control) or are highly contingent on their actions (internal control).
• Long-Term Memory (LTM). Stage of information processing corresponding to the permanent repository of knowledge.
• Mapping. Learning technique in which one identifies important ideas and specifies how they are related.
• Mastery Learning. A systematic instructional plan that has as its objective students demonstrating high achievement and that includes the components of defining mastery, planning for mastery, teaching for mastery, and grading for mastery.
• Mastery Model. Model who demonstrates faultless performance and high self-confidence throughout the modeled sequence.
• Mastery Motivation. See Effectance Motivation.
• Matched-Dependent Behavior. Behavior matched to (the same as) that of the model and dependent on (elicited by) the model's action.
• Meaningful Reception Learning. Learning of ideas, concepts, and principles when material is presented in final form and related to students' prior knowledge.
• Means-Ends Analysis. Problem-solving strategy in which one compares the current situation with the goal to identify the differences between them, sets a sub-goal to reduce one of the differences, performs operations to reach the sub-goal, and repeats the process until the goal is attained.
• Mediation. Mechanism that bridges the link between external reality and mental processes and affects the development of the latter.
• Mental Discipline. The doctrine that learning certain subjects in school enhances mental functioning better than does studying other subjects.
• Mental Imagery. Mental representation of spatial knowledge that includes physical properties of the object or event represented.
• Mentoring. Situation involving the teaching of skills and strategies to students or other professionals within advising and training contexts.
• Metacognition. Deliberate conscious control of one's cognitive activities.
• Method of Loci. Mnemonic technique in which information to be remembered is paired with locations in a familiar setting.
• Mimesis. See Imitation.
• Min Model. Counting method in which one begins with the larger addend and counts in the smaller one.
• Mnemonic. A type of learning method that makes to-be-learned material meaningful by relating it to information that one already knows.
• Modeling. Behavioral, cognitive, and affective changes deriving from observing one or more models.
• Molar Behavior. A large sequence of behavior that is goal directed.
• Motherese. Speaking to children in simple utterances, often in abbreviated form.
• Motivated Learning. Motivation to acquire new knowledge, skills, and strategies, rather than merely to complete activities.
• Motivation. The process of instigating and sustaining goal-directed activities.
• Motivational State. A complex neural connection that includes emotions, cognitions, and behaviors.
• Movement. Discrete behavior that results from muscle contractions.
• MRI. Magnetic resonance imaging; technology in which radio waves cause the brain to produce signals that are mapped, which can detect tumors, lesions, and other abnormalities.
• Multidimensional Classroom. Classroom having many activities and allowing for diversity in student abilities.
• Multimedia. Technology that combines the capabilities of computers with other media such as film, video, sound, music, and text.
• Myelin Sheath. Brain tissue surrounding an axon and facilitating travel of signals.
• Naïve Analysis of Action. The way that common people interpret events.
• Narration. Written account of behavior and the context in which it occurs.
• Negative Reinforcer. A stimulus that, when removed by a response, increases the future likelihood of the response occurring in that situation.
• Negative Transfer. Prior learning that makes subsequent learning more difficult.
• Network. A set of interrelated propositions in long-term memory.
• Networking. Computers in various locations connected to one another and to central peripheral devices.
• Neural Assemblies. Collections of neurons synoptically connected with one another.
• Neuron. Brain cell that sends and receives information across muscles and organs.
• Neuroscience. Science of the relation of the nervous system to learning and behavior.
• Neuroscience of Learning. See Neuroscience.
• Neurotransmitter. Chemical secretions that travel along a brain axon to dendrites of the next cell.
• Nonsense Syllable. Three-letter (consonant-vowel-consonant) combination that makes a nonword.
• Novice. A person who has some familiarity with a domain but performs poorly.
• Novice-to-Expert Methodology. Means of analyzing learning by comparing behaviors and reported thoughts of skilled individuals (experts) with those of less-skilled persons (novices) and deciding on an efficient means of moving novices to the expert level.
• Observational Learning. Display of a new pattern of behavior by one who observes a model; prior to the modeling, the behavior has a zero probability of occurrence by the observer even with motivational inducements in effect.
• Occipital Lobe. Brain lobe primarily concerned with processing visual information.
• Operant Behavior. Behavior that produces an effect on the environment.
• Operant Conditioning. Presenting reinforcement contingent on a response emitted in the presence of a stimulus to increase the rate or likelihood of occurrence of the response.
• Operational Definition. Definition of a phenomenon in terms of the operations or procedures used to measure it.
• Oral Responses. Verbalized questions or answers to questions.
• Outcome Expectation. Belief concerning the anticipated outcome of actions.
• Overjustification. Decrease in intrinsic interest (motivation) in an activity subsequent to engaging in it under conditions that make task engagement salient as a means to some end (e.g., reward).
• Paired-Associate Recall. Recalling the response of a stimulus-response item when presented with the stimulus.
• Paradigm. Model for research.
• Parietal Lobe. Brain lobe responsible for the sense of touch; helps determine body position, and integrates visual information.
• Parsing. Mentally dividing perceived sound patterns into units of meaning.
• Participant Modeling. Therapeutic treatment (used by Bandura) comprising modeled demonstrations, joint performance between client and therapist, gradual withdrawal of performance aids, and individual mastery performance by the client.
• Pattern Recognition. See Perception.
• Peer Collaboration. Learning that occurs when students work together and their social interactions serve an instructional function.
• Peer Tutoring. Situation in which a student who has learned a skill teaches it to one who has not.
• Pegword Method. Mnemonic technique in which the learner memorizes a set of objects rhyming with integer names (e.g., one is a bun, two is a shoe, etc.), generates an image of each item to be learned, and links it with the corresponding object image. During recall, the learner recalls the rhyming scheme with its associated links.
• Perceived Control. Belief that one can influence task engagement and outcomes.
• Perceived Self-Efficacy. See Self-Efficacy.
• Perception. Process of recognizing and assigning meaning to a sensory input.
• Performance Goal. A goal of completing a task.
• PET Scan. Positive emission tomography scan; assesses gamma rays produced by mental activity and provides overall picture of brain activity.
• Phase Sequence. In Hebb's theory, a series of cell assemblies.
• Phi Phenomenon. Perceptual phenomenon of apparent motion caused by lights flashing on and off at short intervals.
• Phonemes. The smallest unit of a speech sound.
• Positive Regard. Feelings such as respect, liking, warmth, sympathy, and acceptance.
• Positive Reinforcer. A stimulus that, when presented following a response, increases the future likelihood of the response occurring in that situation.
• Positive Self-Regard. Positive regard that derives from self-experiences.
• Positive Transfer. Prior learning facilitates subsequent learning.
• Postdecisional Processes. Cognitive activities engaged in subsequent to goal setting.
• Predecisional Processes. Cognitive activities involved in making decisions and setting goals.
• Prefrontal Cortex. Front part of the frontal lobe of the brain.
• Premack Principle. A principle stating that the opportunity to engage in a more-valued activity reinforces engaging in a less-valued activity.
• Preoperational Stage. Second of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, encompassing roughly ages 2 to 7.
• Primacy Effect. Tendency to recall the initial items in a list.
• Primary Motor Cortex. Area of the brain that controls bodily movements.
• Primary Qualities. Characteristics of objects (e.g., size, shape) that exist in the external world as part of the objects.
• Primary Reinforcement. Behavioral consequence that satisfies a biological need.
• Primary Signals. Environmental events that can become conditioned stimuli and produce conditioned responses.
• Private Events. Thoughts or feelings accessible only to the individual.
• Private Speech. The set of speech phenomena that has a self-regulatory function but is not socially communicative.
• Proactive Interference. Old learning makes new learning more difficult.
• Problem. A situation in which one is trying to reach a goal and must find a means of attaining it.
• Problem Solving . One's efforts to achieve a goal for which one does not have an automatic solution.
• Problem Space. The problem-solving context that comprises a beginning state, a goal state, and possible solution paths leading through sub-goals and requiring application of operations.
• Procedural Knowledge. Knowledge of how to do something: employ algorithms and rules, identify concepts, solve problems.
• Process-Product Research. Study that relates changes in teaching processes to student products or outcomes.
• Production. Translating visual and symbolic conceptions of events into behaviors.
• Production Deficiency. The failure to generate task-relevant verbalizations when they could improve performance.
• Production System (Production). Memory network of condition-action sequences (rules), where the condition is the set of circumstances that activates the system and the action is the set of activities that occurs.
• Productive Thinking. See Problem Solving.
• Programmed Instruction (PI). Instructional materials developed in accordance with behavioral learning principles.
• Proposition. The smallest unit of information that can be judged true or false.
• Propositional Network. Interconnected associative structure in long-term memory comprising nodes or bits of information.
• Prototype. Abstract form stored in memory that contains the basic ingredients of a stimulus and is compared with an environmental input during perception.
• Punishment. Withdrawal of a positive reinforcer, or presentation of a negative reinforcer contingent on a response, which decreases the future likelihood of the response being made in the presence of the stimulus.
• Purposive Behaviorism. Descriptive term for Tolman's theory emphasizing the study of large sequences of (molar) goal-directed behaviors.
• Qualitative Research. Study characterized by depth and quality of analysis and interpretation of data through the use of methods such as classroom observations, use of existing records, interviews, and think-aloud protocols.
• Questionnaire. Situation in which respondents are presented with items or questions asking about their thoughts and actions.
• Ratings by Others. Evaluations of students on quality or quantity of performance.
• Ratio Schedule. A schedule where reinforcement is contingent on the number of responses.
• Rationalism. The doctrine that knowledge derives from reason without the aid of the senses.
• Readiness. What children are capable of doing or learning at various points in development.
• Reasoning. Mental processes involved in generating and evaluating logical arguments.
• Recency Effect. Tendency to recall the last items in a list.
• Reciprocal Teaching. Interactive dialogue between teacher and students in which teacher initially models activities, after which teacher and students take turns being the teacher.
• Reflective Teaching. Thoughtful teacher decision making that takes into account knowledge about students, the context, psychological processes, learning and motivation, and self-knowledge.
• Rehearsal. Repeating information to oneself aloud or subvocally.
• Reinforcement. Any stimulus or event that leads to response strengthening.
• Reinforcement History. Extent that an individual has been reinforced previously for performing the same or similar behavior.
• Reinforcement Theory. See Behavioral Theory.
• Reinforcing Stimulus. The stimulus in the operant model of conditioning that is presented contingent on a response and increases the probability of the response being emitted in the future in the presence of the discriminative stimulus.
• Relativism. The doctrine that all forms of knowledge are justifiable because they are constructed by learners, especially if they reflect social consensus.
• Research. Systematic investigation designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge.
• Resource Allocation. Learning model specifying that attention is a limited resource and is allocated to activities as a function of motivation and self-regulation.
• Respondent Behavior. Response made to an eliciting stimulus.
• Response Facilitation. Previously learned behaviors of observers are prompted by the actions of models.
• Response Tempo. See Cognitive (Response) Tempo.
• Restructuring. Process of forming new schemata.
• Retention. Storage of information in memory.
• Reticular Formation. Part of the brain that handles autonomic nervous systems functions, controls sensory inputs, and is involved in awareness.
• Retroactive Interference. New learning makes recall of old knowledge and skills more difficult.
• Reversibility. Cognitive ability to sequence operations in opposite order.
• Rhetorical Problem. The problem space in writing, which includes the writer's topic, intended audience, and goals.
• Satiation. Fulfillment of reinforcement that results in decreased responding.
• Savings Score. Time or trials necessary for relearning as a percentage of time or trials required for original learning.
• Scaffolding. Process of controlling task elements that are beyond the learner's capabilities so that the learner can focus on and master those task features that he or she can grasp quickly.
• Schedule of Reinforcement. When reinforcement is applied.
• Schema. A cognitive structure that organizes large amounts of information into a meaningful system.
• Schema Theory. Theory explaining how people develop schemas (organized memory structures composed of related information).
• School Development Program. System of community and parental involvement in schools stressing consensus, collaboration, and no-fault.
• Scientific Literacy. Understanding the meanings, foundations, current status, and problems of scientific phenomena.
• Script. A mental representation of an often-repeated event.
• Second Signal System. Words and other features of language that are used by humans to communicate and that can become conditioned stimuli.
• Secondary Qualities. Characteristics of objects (e.g., color, sound) that depend on individuals' senses and cognitions.
• Secondary Reinforcement. Process whereby a behavioral consequence (e.g., money) becomes reinforcing by being paired with a primary reinforcer (e.g., food).
• Self-Actualization. The desire for self-fulfillment or for becoming everything one is capable of becoming; the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
• Self-Concept . One's collective self-perceptions that are formed through experiences with, and interpretations of, the environment and that are heavily influenced by reinforcements and evaluations by significant other persons.
• Self-Confidence. The extent that one believes one can produce results, accomplish goals, or perform tasks competently (analogous to Self-Efficacy).
• Self-Determination. Motive aimed at developing competence, which begins as undifferentiated but eventually differentiates into specific areas.
• Self-Efficacy (Efficacy Expectations). Personal beliefs concerning one's capabilities to organize and implement actions necessary to learn or perform behaviors at designated levels.
• Self-Esteem . One's perceived sense of self-worth; whether one accepts and respects oneself.
• Self-Evaluation. Process involving self-judgments of current performance by comparing it to one's goal and self-reactions to these judgments by deeming performance noteworthy, unacceptable, and so forth.
• Self-Evaluative Standards. Standards people use to evaluate their performances.
• Self-Instruction. In a learning setting, discriminative stimuli that are produced by the individual and that set the occasion for responses leading to reinforcement.
• Self-Instructional Training. Instructional procedure that comprises cognitive modeling, overt guidance, overt self-guidance, faded overt self-guidance, and covert self-instruction.
• Self-Judgment. Comparing one's current performance level with one's goal.
• Self-Modeling. Changes in behaviors, thoughts, and affects that derive from observing one's own performances.
• Self-Monitoring (-Observation, -Recording). Deliberate attention to some aspect of one's behavior, often accompanied by recording its frequency or intensity.
• Self-Reaction. Changes in one's beliefs and behaviors after judging performance against a goal.
• Self-Regulation (Self-Regulated Learning). The process whereby students personally activate and sustain behaviors, cognitions, and affects that are systematically oriented toward the attainment of learning goals.
• Self-Reinforcement. The process whereby individuals, after performing a response, arrange to receive reinforcement that increases the likelihood of future responding.
• Self-Reports. People's judgments and statements about themselves.
• Self-Schema. Manifestation of enduring goals, aspirations, motives, and fears, which includes cognitive and affective evaluations of ability, volition, and personal agency.
• Self-Worth. Perceptions of one's value, grounded largely in beliefs about ability.
• Semantic Memory. Memory of general information and concepts available in the environment and not tied to a particular individual or context.
• Sensorimotor Stage. First of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, encompassing birth to roughly age 2.
• Sensory Register. State of information processing concerned with receiving inputs, holding them briefly in sensory form, and transferring them to working memory.
• Serial Recall. Recalling stimuli in the order in which they are presented.
• Shaping. Differential reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired rate or form of behavior.
• Short-Term Memory (STM) or Working Memory (WM). Information processing stage corresponding to awareness, or what one is conscious of at a given moment.
• Simulation. Real or imaginary situation that cannot be brought into a learning setting.
• Situated Cognition (Learning). Idea that thinking is situated (located) in physical and social contexts.
• Social Cognitive Theory. Cognitive theory that emphasizes the role of the social environment in learning.
• Social Comparison. Process of comparing one's beliefs and behaviors with those of others.
• Social Constructivism. Constructivist perspective emphasizing the importance of the individual's social interactions in the acquisition of skills and knowledge.
• Socially Mediated Learning. Learning influenced by aspects of the sociocultural environment.
• Socioeconomic Status (SES). Descriptive term denoting one's capital (resources, assets).
• Specific Skill. Skill applying only to certain domains (e.g., regrouping in subtraction).
• Spinal Cord. That part of the central nervous system that connects the brain to the rest of the body.
• Spiral Curriculum. Building on prior knowledge by presenting the same topics at increasing levels of complexity as students move through schooling.
• Spontaneous Recovery. Sudden recurrence of the conditioned response following presentation of the conditioned stimulus after a time lapse in which the conditioned stimulus is not presented.
• Spreading Activation. Activation in long-term memory of propositions that are associatively linked with material currently in one's working memory.
• SQ3R Method (Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Recall/Review). Method of studying text that stands for Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Review; modified to SQ4R with addition of Reflection.
• Steroid. A type of hormone that can affect various functions including sexual development and stress reactions.
• Stimulated Recall. Research procedure in which people work on a task and afterward recall their thoughts at various points; the procedure may include videotaping.
• Stimulus-Response Theory (S-R Theory). Learning theory emphasizing associations between stimuli and responses.
• Strategy Value Information. Information linking strategy use with improved performance.
• Structural Theories of Development. Theories positing that development consists of changes in mental structures.
• Structuralism. Doctrine postulating that the mind is composed of associations of ideas and that studying the complexities of the mind requires breaking associations into single ideas.
• Successive Approximations. See Shaping.
• Sum Model. Counting method in which one counts in the first addend and then the second one.
• Surface Structure. The speech and syntax of a language.
• Syllogism. Deductive reasoning problem that includes premises and a conclusion containing all, no, or some.
• Symbolic Representation. Representing knowledge with symbol systems (e.g., language, mathematical notation).
• Synapse. Point where axons and dendrites meet in the brain.
• Synaptic Gap. Space between axons and dendrites into which neurotransmitters are released.
• Synchronous Learning. Real-time interactions.
• Systematic Desensitization. Therapeutic procedure used to extinguish fears by pairing threatening stimuli with cues for relaxation.
• Tabula Rasa. Native state of a learner (blank tablet).
• TARGET. Acronym representing classroom motivation variables: task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation, time.
• Task Involvement. Motivational state characterized by viewing learning as a goal and focusing on task demands rather than on oneself.
• Technology. The designs and environments that engage learners.
• Template Matching. Theory of perception postulating that people store templates (miniature copies of stimuli) in memory and compare these templates with environmental stimuli during perception.
• Temporal Lobe. Brain lobe responsible for processing auditory information.
• Teratogen. A foreign substance that can cause abnormalities in a developing embryo or fetus.
• Thalamus. Part of the brain that sends sensory inputs (except for smell) to the cortex.
• Theory. Scientifically acceptable set of principles offered to explain a phenomenon.
• Think-Aloud. Research procedure in which participants verbalize aloud their thoughts, actions, and feelings while performing a task.
• Three-Term Contingency. The basic operant model of conditioning: A discriminative stimulus sets the occasion for a response to be emitted, which is followed by a reinforcing stimulus.
• Threshold Method of Behavioral Change. Altering behavior by introducing the cue for the undesired response at a low level and gradually increasing its magnitude until it is presented at full strength.
• Time Needed for Learning. Amount of academically engaged time required by a student to learn a task.
• Time-Out (From Reinforcement). Removal of an individual from a situation where reinforcement can be obtained.
• Time-Sampling Measure. Measure of how often a behavior occurs during an interval of a longer period.
• Time Spent in Learning. Amount of academically engaged time expended to learn.
• Tools. The objects, language, and social institutions of a culture.
• Top-Down Processing. Pattern recognition of stimuli that occurs by forming a meaningful representation of the context, developing expectations of what will occur, and comparing features of stimuli to expectations to confirm or disconfirm one's expectations.
• Trace Decay. Loss of a stimulus from the sensory register over time.
• Transfer (Generalization). Application of skills or knowledge in new ways or situations.
• Translation. Aspect of writing involving putting one's ideas into print.
• Triadic Reciprocality. Reciprocal interactions (causal relations) among behaviors, environmental variables, and cognitions and other personal factors.
• Trial and Error. Learning by performing a response and experiencing the consequences.
• Tuning. Modification and refinement of schemata as they are used in various contexts.
• Tutoring. A situation in which one or more persons serve as the instructional agents for another, usually in a specific subject or for a particular purpose
• Two-Store Memory (Dual Memory). Model of Information Processing Conceptualization of memory as involving stages of processing and having two primary areas for storing information (short- and long-term memory).
• Type R Behavior. See Operant Behavior.
• Type S Behavior. See Respondent Behavior.
• Unconditional Positive Regard. Attitudes of worthiness and acceptance with no conditions attached.
• Unconditioned Response (UCR). The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS). A stimulus that when presented elicits a natural response from the organism.
• Undifferentiated Task Structure. Class situation in which all students work on the same or similar tasks and instruction uses a small number of materials or methods.
• Unidimensional Classroom. Classroom having few activities that address a limited range of student abilities.
• Unitary Theory. Theory postulating that all information is represented in long-term memory in verbal codes.
• Unlearning. See Forgetting.
• Utilization. The use made of parsed sound patterns (e.g., store in memory, respond if a question, or seek additional information).
• Utilization Deficiency. Failure to use a strategy of which one is cognitively aware.
• Value. The perceived importance or usefulness of learning.
• Verbal Behavior. Vocal responses shaped and maintained by the actions of other persons.
• Vicarious Learning. Learning that occurs without overt performance, such as by observing live or symbolic models.
• Video Deficit. Poorer learning by young children from video compared with real-life experiences.
• Virtual Reality. Computer-based technology that incorporates input and output devices and that allows students to experience and interact with an artificial environment as if it were the real world.
• Visual Cortex. Occipital lobe of the brain.
• Volition. The act of using the will; the process of dealing with the implementation of actions to attain goals.
• Volitional Style. Stable individual differences in volition.
• Wernicke's Area. Brain part in the left hemisphere that is involved in speech comprehension and use of proper syntax when speaking.
• Will. That part of the mind that reflects one's desire, want, or purpose.
• Worked Example. Step-by-step problem solution that may include diagrams.
• Working Backward. Problem-solving strategy in which one starts with the goal and asks which sub-goals are necessary to accomplish it, what is necessary to accomplish these sub-goals, and so forth, until the beginning state is reached.
• Working Forward. Problem-solving strategy in which one starts with the beginning problem state and decides how to alter it to progress toward the goal.
• Working Self-Concept. Those self-schemas that are mentally active at any time; currently accessible self-knowledge.
• Written Responses. Performances on tests, quizzes, homework, term papers, reports, and computer documents.
• X-Ray. High frequency electromagnetic waves used to determine abnormalities in solid body structures.
• Zero Transfer. One type of learning has no obvious effect on subsequent learning.
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The amount of learning possible by a student given the proper instructional conditions.