Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy 9e by Peter, Olson

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Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy 9e by Peter, Olson is the ninth edition of the Consumer Behavior & Marketing Strategy textbook authored by J. Paul Peter, University of Wisconsin, Madison, and Jerry C. Olson, Pennsylvania State University, Olson Zaltman Associates, and published by McGraw-Hill/Irwin, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York, NY in 2010.

  • Accessibility. The probability that a meaning concept will be (or can be) activated from memory. Highly related to top-of-mind awareness and salience.
  • Accidental exposure. Occurs when consumers come in contact with marketing information in the environment that they haven't deliberately sought out. Compare with intentional exposure.
  • Accretion. The most common type of cognitive learning. Adding new knowledge, meanings, and beliefs to an associative network.
  • Acculturation. The process by which people in one culture or subculture learn to understand and adapt to the meanings, values, lifestyles, and behaviors of another culture or subculture.
  • Activation. The essentially automatic process by which knowledge, meanings, and beliefs are retrieved from memory and made available for use in cognitive processing.
  • Adopter categories. A classification of consumers based on the time of initial purchase of a new product. Typically, five groups are considered: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards.
  • Adoption curve. A visual representation of the cumulative percentage of individuals who adopt a new product across time.
  • Adoption process. An ambiguous term sometimes used to refer to a model of stages in the purchase process ranging from awareness to knowledge, evaluation, trial, and adoption. In other cases, it is used as a synonym for the diffusion process.
  • Advertising. Any paid, nonpersonal presentation of information about a product, brand, company, or store.
  • Affect. A basic mode of psychological response that involves a general positive/negative feeling and varying levels of activation or arousal of the physiological system that consumers experience in their bodies. Compare with cognition. See also affective responses.
  • Affective responses. Psychological responses consisting of four types: emotions, specific feelings, moods, and evaluations. These responses vary in level of intensity and arousal.
  • Age subcultures. Groups of people defined in terms of age categories (teens, elderly) with distinctive behaviors, values, beliefs, and lifestyles.
  • AIO. An acronym for activities, interest, and opinions. AIO measures are the primary method for investigating consumer lifestyles and forming psychographic segments.
  • Aspirational group. A reference group an individual consumer wants to join or be similar to.
  • Associative network. An organized structure of knowledge, meanings, and beliefs about some concept such as a brand. Each meaning concept is linked to other concepts to form a network of associations.
  • Attention. The process by which consumers select information in the environment to interpret. Also, the point at which consumers become conscious or aware of certain stimuli.
  • Attitude. A person's overall evaluation of a concept. An affective response at a low level of intensity and arousal. General feelings of favorability or liking.
  • Attitude-change strategies. Processes for changing attitudes, including adding a new salient belief, making a salient belief stronger, and making a salient belief more positive. See attitude and multiattribute attitude models.
  • Attitude models. See multiattribute attitude models.
  • Attitudes toward objects (A O). Consumers' overall evaluation (like/dislike) of an object such as a product or store. May be formed in two quite different ways: a cognitive process that involves relatively controlled and conscious integration of information about the object or a largely automatic and unconscious response of the affective system.
  • Attitude toward the ad (A ad). Consumers' affective evaluations of advertisements themselves, not the product or brand being promoted.
  • Attitude toward the behavior or action (A act). The consumer's overall evaluation of a specific behavior.
  • Attributes. Characteristics of the product. Can be tangible, subjective characteristics, such as the quality of a blanket or the stylishness of a car. Or can be tangible, physical characteristics of a product such as the type of fiber in a blanket or the front-seat legroom in a car.
  • Automatic processing. Describes cognitive processes that tend to become more automatic -- require less conscious control and less cognitive capacity -- as they become more practiced and familiar.
  • Baby boomers. The name for the very large cohort of people born in the United States during the years after World War II from about 1946 until about 1964. See market segmentation.
  • Baseline. The level of consumers' responses prior to implementing a new strategy.
  • Behavior. Overt actions that can be directly observed and measured by others.
  • Behavioral intention (BI). A plan to perform an action -- "I intend to go shopping this afternoon." Intentions are produced when beliefs about the behavioral consequences of the action and social normative beliefs are considered and integrated to evaluate alternative behaviors and select among them.
  • Behavior effort. The effort consumers expend when making a purchase.
  • Behaviors. Specific overt actions directed at some target object.
  • Belief. The perceived association between two concepts. May be represented cognitively as a proposition. Beliefs about products often concern their attributes or functional consequences. For example, after trying a new brand of toothpaste, a consumer may form a belief that it has a minty taste. Beliefs are synonymous with knowledge and meaning in that each term refers to consumers' cognitive representations of important concepts.
  • Belief evaluation (e i). Reflects how favorably the consumer perceives an attribute or consequence associated with a product.
  • Belief strength (b i). The perceived strength of association between an object and its relevant attributes or consequences.
  • Benefits. Desirable consequences or outcomes that consumers seek when purchasing and using products and services.
  • Benefit segmentation. The process of grouping consumers on the basis of the benefits they seek from the product. For example, the toothpaste market may include one segment seeking cosmetic benefits such as white teeth and another seeking health benefits such as decay prevention.
  • Brand choice. The selection of one brand from a consideration set of alternative brands.
  • Brand equity. The value of a brand. From the consumer's perspective, brand equity is reflected by the brand attitude based on beliefs about positive product attributes and favorable consequences of brand use.
  • Brand indifference. A purchasing pattern characterized by a low degree of brand loyalty.
  • Brand loyalty. An intrinsic commitment to repeatedly purchase a particular brand.
  • Brand switching. A purchasing pattern characterized by a change from one brand to another.
  • Categorization. A cognitive process by which objects, events, and people are grouped together and responded to in terms of their class membership rather than their unique characteristics.
  • Category accessibility. The degree to which a consumer can activate a category of meaning from memory. A cognitive approach to describing modeling effects, where the process of viewing a model's behavior involves the activation of an interpretive schema.
  • Central route to persuasion. One of two types of cognitive processes by which persuasion occurs. In the central route, consumers focus on the product messages in the ad, interpret them, form beliefs about product attributes and consequences, and integrate these meanings to form brand attitudes and intentions. See peripheral route to persuasion.
  • Choice. The outcome of the integration processes involved in consumer decision making. See also behavioral intention.
  • Choice alternatives. The different product classes, product forms, brands, or models available for purchase.
  • Choice criteria. The specific product attributes or consequences used by consumers to evaluate and choose from a set of alternatives.
  • Classical conditioning. A process by which a neutral stimulus (such as a new product) becomes capable of eliciting a response (such as positive affect) because it was repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally causes the response (such as sexy models).
  • Cognition. The mental processes of interpretation and integration and the thoughts and meanings they produce.
  • Cognitive activity. The mental thought and effort involved in interpreting and integrating information, as in a purchase decision. Often considered as a cost.
  • Cognitive dissonance. A psychologically uncomfortable condition brought about by an imbalance in thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, or behavior. For example, behaving in a way that is inconsistent with one's beliefs creates cognitive dissonance and a motivation to reduce the inconsistency.
  • Cognitive learning. The processes by which knowledge structures are formed and changed as consumers interpret new information and acquire new meanings and beliefs.
  • Cognitive processing. The mental activities (both conscious and unconscious) by which external information in the environment is transformed into meanings and combined to form evaluations of objects and choices about behavior.
  • Cognitive representations. The subjective meanings that reflect each person's personal interpretation of stimuli in the environment and of behavior.
  • Cognitive response. The thoughts one has in response to a persuasive message such as support arguments or acceptance thoughts, counterarguments, and curiosity thoughts.
  • Communication. A type of behavior that marketers attempt to increase, involving two basic audiences: consumers who can provide the company with marketing information and consumers who can tell other potential consumers about the product and encourage them to buy it.
  • Communication model. A simple representation of human communication processes that focuses on characteristics of the source, message, medium, and receiver.
  • Communication process. The physical and social processes involved in transferring messages and meaning from a source to a receiver. See also communication model.
  • Compatibility. The degree to which a product is consistent with consumers' current cognitions and behaviors.
  • Compensatory integration processes. In decision making, the combination of all the salient beliefs about the consequences of the choice alternatives to form an overall evaluation or attitude (A act ) toward each behavioral alternative. See also noncompensatory integration processes.
  • Compensatory rule. A principle stating that in evaluating alternatives, a consumer will select the alternative with the highest overall evaluation on a set of criteria. Criteria evaluations are done separately and combined such that positive evaluations can offset (or compensate for) negative evaluations. This term is also called compensatory process, compensatory integration procedure, and compensatory model. See also noncompensatory integration processes.
  • Competitive advantage. The degree to which an item has a sustainable, competitive, differential advantage over other product classes, product forms, and brands.
  • Complete environment. The total complex of physical and social stimuli in the external world that are potentially available to the consumer.
  • Comprehension. The cognitive processes involved in interpreting and understanding concepts, events, objects, and persons in the environment.
  • Confirmation. In consumer satisfaction theory, a situation in which a product performs exactly as it was expected to; that is, prepurchase expectations are confirmed.
  • Conjunctive rule. See noncompensatory integration processes.
  • Consensual environment. Those parts of the environment that are attended to and similarly interpreted by a group of people with relatively similar cultural and social backgrounds.
  • Consideration set. A set of alternatives that the consumer evaluates in making a decision. Compare with evoked set.
  • Consumer acculturation. The process by which people acquire the ability and cultural knowledge to be skilled consumers in different cultures or subcultures.
  • Consumer behavior. (1) The dynamic interaction of affect and cognition, behavior, and environmental events by which individuals conduct the exchange aspects of their lives; (2) a field of study concerned with (1); (3) a college course concerned with (1); and (4) the overt actions of consumers.
  • Consumer decision making. The cognitive processes by which consumers interpret product information and integrate that knowledge to make choices among alternatives.
  • Consumer information processing. The cognitive processes by which consumers interpret and integrate information from the environment.
  • Consumer–product relationship. The relationship between target consumers and the product or brand of interest. How consumers perceive the product as relating to their goals and values. Important to consider in developing all phases of a marketing strategy. See also means–end chain.
  • Consumer promotion. Marketing tactics, such as coupons and free samples, designed to have a direct impact on consumer purchase behavior.
  • Consumer purchase mode. The method a consumer uses to shop and purchase from store or nonstore alternatives.
  • Consumer satisfaction. The degree to which a consumer's prepurchase expectations are fulfilled or surpassed by a product.
  • Consumer socialization. How children acquire knowledge about products and services and various consumption-related skills.
  • Consumption. Use of a product.
  • Consumption situation. The social and physical factors present in the environments where consumers actually use and consume the products and services they buy.
  • Content of culture. All the beliefs, attitudes, goals, and values shared by most people in a society, as well as the typical behaviors, rules, customs, and norms that most people follow, plus characteristic aspects of the physical and social environment.
  • Continuous reinforcement schedule. A schedule of reinforcement that provides a reward after every occurrence of the desired behavior.
  • Core values. The abstract, broad, general end goals that people are trying to achieve in their lives.
  • Covert modeling. A type of modeling in which no actual behaviors or consequences are demonstrated; instead, subjects are told to imagine observing a model behaving in various situations and receiving particular consequences.
  • Cross-cultural differences. How the content of culture (meanings, values, norms) differs among different cultures.
  • Cross-cultural research. Studies in which marketers seek to identify the differences and similarities in the cultural meaning systems of consumers living in different societies.
  • Cultural interpenetration. The amount and type of social interaction between newcomers to a culture (immigrants) and people in the host culture. Influences the degree of acculturation the newcomers can attain.
  • Cultural meanings. The shared or similar knowledge, meanings, and beliefs by which people in a social system represent significant aspects of their environments.
  • Cultural process. The process by which cultural meaning is moved or transferred among three locations in a society: the social and physical environment, products and services, and individual consumers.
  • Culture. The complex of learned meanings, values, and behavioral patterns that members of a society share.
  • Deal proneness. A consumer's general inclination to use promotional deals such as buying on sale or using coupons.
  • Decision. A choice between two or more alternative actions or behaviors. See also choice and behavioral intention.
  • Decision conflict. A situation in which family members disagree about various aspects of the purchase decision, such as goals and appropriate choice criteria.
  • Decision making. See consumer decision making.
  • Decision plan. The sequence of behavioral intentions produced when consumers engage in problem solving during the decision-making process. See also behavioral intention.
  • Diffusion process. The process by which new ideas and products become accepted by a society. See also adopter categories.
  • Disconfirmation. In consumer satisfaction theory, a situation in which a product performs differently than expected. See also negative disconfirmation and positive disconfirmation.
  • Discriminant consequences. Consequences that differ across a set of alternatives that may be used as choice criteria.
  • Discriminative stimulus. A stimulus that by its mere presence or absence changes the probability of a behavior. For example, a "50 percent off" sign in a store window could be a discriminative stimulus.
  • Disjunctive rule. See noncompensatory integration processes.
  • Disposition situation. The physical and social aspects of the environments in which consumers dispose of products, as well as consumers' goals, values, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors while in those environments.
  • Dissatisfaction. Occurs when prepurchase expectations are negatively confirmed, that is, when the product performs worse than expected.
  • Dissociative group. A reference group that an individual does not want to join or be similar to.
  • Early adopters. The second group of adopters of a new product.
  • Early majority. The third group of adopters of a new product.
  • Elaboration. The extensiveness of comprehension processes. The degree of elaboration determines the amount of knowledge or the number of meanings produced during comprehension, as well as the richness of the interconnections among those meanings.
  • Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM). A formal model of how consumers comprehend and elaborate information. Two processes are possible, depending on the consumer's level of involvement: the central route and the peripheral route. See elaboration, central route to persuasion, and peripheral route to persuasion.
  • End goal. The most abstract or most basic consequence, need, or value a consumer wants to achieve or satisfy in a given problem-solving situation.
  • Enduring involvement. The personal relevance of a product or an activity. See also intrinsic selfrelevance. Compare with situational involvement.
  • Environment. The complex set of physical and social stimuli in consumers' external world.
  • Environmental prominence. The marketing strategy of making certain stimuli obvious or prominent in the environment.
  • Episodic knowledge. Cognitive representations of specific events in a person's life. Compare with semantic knowledge.
  • Ethnic subcultures. Large social groups based on consumers' ethnic backgrounds. In the United States, the important ethnic subcultures include African Americans or blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and Native Americans.
  • European Union (EU). An agreement among European countries designed to facilitate international commerce.
  • Evaluation. An overall judgment of favorable/unfavorable, pro/con, or like/dislike. An attitude toward an object such as a brand, an ad, or a behavioral act.
  • Evoked set. The set of choice alternatives activated directly from memory.
  • Expectancy theory. A possible explanation for modeling, a cognitive theory that suggests models influence an observer's behavior by influencing his or her expectations.
  • Expertise. High familiarity with a product category and specific brands and possessing substantial amounts of declarative and procedural knowledge organized in schemas and scripts.
  • Exposure. Occurs when consumers come into contact with information in the environment, sometimes through their own intentional behaviors and sometimes by accident.
  • Extensive decision making. A choice involving substantial cognitive and behavioral effort. Compare with limited decision making and routinized choice behavior.
  • External reference price. Explicit comparison of the stated price with another price in advertising, catalogs, and so on.
  • Extinction. The process of arranging the environment so that a particular response results in neutral consequences, thus diminishing the frequency of the response over time.
  • Family. A group of at least two people formed on the basis of marriage, cohabitation, blood relationships, or adoption. Families often serve as a basis for various types of consumer analysis.
  • Family decision making. The processes, interactions, and roles of family members involved in making decisions as a group.
  • Family life cycle. A sociological concept that describes changes in families across time. Emphasis is placed on the effects of marriage, births, aging, and deaths on families and the changes in income and consumption through various family stages.
  • Fishbein Behavioral Intentions Model. An earlier name for the theory of reasoned action.
  • Fixed ratio schedule. A type of reinforcement schedule where every second, third, tenth, and so on response is reinforced.
  • Focal attention. A controlled, conscious level of attention that focuses cognitive processes on relevant or prominent stimuli in the environment. Compare with preconscious attention.
  • Foote, Cone & Belding grid (FCB grid). A 2-by-2 grid developed by the Foote, Cone & Belding advertising agency for analyzing consumers and products. The FCB grid categorizes products based on consumers' level of involvement (high or low) and on whether consumers' dominant response to the product is cognitive or affective (think or feel).
  • Form utility. Utility that occurs when channels convert raw materials into finished goods and services in forms the consumer seeks to purchase.
  • Four stages of acculturation. Four levels of acculturation a newcomer to a culture could achieve, depending on the level of cultural interpenetration: honeymoon, rejection, tolerance, and integration stages.
  • Free-form layout. A store layout that permits consumers to move freely rather than being constrained to movement up and down specific aisles.
  • Functional consequences. The immediate outcomes of product use that can be directly experienced by consumers. For instance, a toothpaste may whiten your teeth.
  • Functional environment (or perceived environment). Those parts of the complete environment that are attended to and interpreted by a particular consumer on a particular occasion.
  • Funds access. The ways consumers obtain money for purchases, such as cash, credit cards, checks, or loans. Primary marketing issues include the methods consumers use to pay for particular purchases and the marketing strategies used to increase the probability that consumers are able to access their funds for purchase.
  • General knowledge. The meanings consumers construct to represent important informational stimuli they encounter in the environment. Compare with procedural knowledge.
  • Geodemographic segmentation. A segmentation approach that focuses on local neighborhood geography, demographics, and other market characteristics to classify actual, addressable, mappable neighborhoods where consumers live and shop.
  • Geographic subcultures. Large social groups defined in geographic terms. For instance, people living in different parts of a country may exhibit cultural differences.
  • Global marketing. An approach that argues for marketing a product in essentially the same way throughout the world.
  • Goal hierarchy. The end goal and the subgoals involved in achieving it.
  • Grid layout. A store layout where all counters and fixtures are at right angles to each other, with merchandise counters acting as barriers to traffic flow.
  • Group. Two or more people who interact with each other to accomplish some goal. Examples include families, co-workers, bowling teams, and church members.
  • Heuristics. Propositions connecting an event with an action. Heuristics simplify problem solving. For example, "buy the cheapest brand" could be a choice heuristic that would simplify purchase choice.
  • Hierarchy of effects model. An early model that depicted consumer response to advertising as a series of stages including awareness, knowledge, liking, preference, conviction, and purchase.
  • Hierarchy of needs. See Maslow's need hierarchy.
  • High involvement. See involvement.
  • Household. The people living in a housing unit -- a dwelling with its own entrance and basic facilities.
  • Ideal self-concept. The ideas, attitudes, and meanings people have about themselves concerning what they would be like if they were perfect or ideal. Compare with self-concept.
  • Impulse purchase. A purchase choice typically made quickly in-store with little decision-making effort.
  • Inferences. Meanings or beliefs that consumers construct to represent the relationships between concepts that are not based on explicit environmental information.
  • Information acquisition situation. Includes physical and social aspects of environments where consumers acquire information relevant to a problem-solving goal, such as a store choice or a decision to buy a particular brand.
  • Informational reference group influence. Information from a group that is accepted if the consumer believes it will help achieve a goal.
  • Information contact. A common early stage in the purchase sequence that occurs when consumers come into contact with information about the product or brand. This often occurs in promotions, where such contact can be intentional (consumers search newspapers for coupons) or accidental (a consumer happens to come into contact with a promotion while engaging in some other behavior). See also exposure.
  • Information processing. See consumer information processing.
  • Information-processing models. Used to divide complex cognitive processes into a series of simpler subprocesses that are more easily measured and understood.
  • Information search. Consumers' deliberate search for relevant information in the external environment.
  • Innovativeness. A personality trait regarding the degree to which a consumer accepts and purchases new products and services.
  • Innovators. The first group of consumers to adopt a new product.
  • Instrumental conditioning. See operant coonditioning.
  • Integration processes. The processes by which consumers combine knowledge to make two types of judgments. Attitude formation concerns how different types of knowledge are combined to form overall evaluations of products or brands. Decision making concerns how knowledge is combined to make choices about what behaviors to perform.
  • Intentional exposure. Occurs when consumers are exposed to marketing information because of their own intentional, goal-directed behavior. Compare with accidental exposure.
  • Internal reference price. The price consumers have in mind for a product.
  • Interpretation processes. The processes by which consumers make sense of or determine the meanings of important aspects of the physical and social environment, as well as their own behaviors and internal affective states.
  • Interrupts. Stimuli that interrupt or stop the problem-solving process, such as unexpected information encountered in the environment.
  • Intrinsic self-relevance. A consumer's personal level of self-relevance for a product. Cognitively represented by the general means–end chains of product–self relationships that consumers have learned and stored in memory. Compare with situational self-relevance.
  • Involvement. The degree of personal relevance a product, brand, object, or behavior has for a consumer. Experienced as feelings of arousal or activation and interest or importance. Determined by intrinsic and situational self-relevance. A high involvement product is one a consumer believes has important personal consequences or will help achieve important personal goals. A low-involvement product is one that is not strongly linked to important consequences or goals.
  • ISTEA model. A model for the process of developing a personal selling promotion strategy; stands for i mpression, s trategy, t ransmission, e valuation, and a djustment.
  • Knowledge. Cognitive representations of products, brands, and other aspects of the environment that are stored in memory. Also called meanings or beliefs.
  • Laggards. The last group to adopt a new product.
  • Late majority. The next-to-last group to adopt a new product.
  • Level of competition. A key aspect of the promotion environment for a product category. As competition heats up, marketers' use of promotions usually increases.
  • Level of comprehension. The different types of meanings consumers construct during interpretation processes.
  • Levels of abstraction. Levels of consumers' product knowledge ranging from concrete attributes to more abstract functional consequences to very abstract value outcomes.
  • Levels of product knowledge. Consumers' product knowledge in terms of abstraction attributes, functional consequences, psychosocial consequences, and values. Also, consumers have knowledge about levels of products, including product categories, product forms, brands, and models. See knowledge.
  • Lexicographic rule. See noncompensatory integration processes.
  • Lifestyle. The manner in which people conduct their lives, including their activities, interests, and opinions.
  • Limited capacity. The notion that the amount of knowledge that can be activated and thought about at one time is quite small.
  • Limited decision making. A choice process involving a moderate degree of cognitive and behavioral effort. Compare with extensive decision making.
  • Macro environment. Large-scale environmental characteristics or features, such as the state of the economy, the political climate, or the season of the year. See environment.
  • Macro social environment. The broad, pervasive aspects of the social environment that affect the entire society or large portions of it, including culture, subculture, and social class.
  • Marketing concept. A business philosophy that argues organizations should satisfy consumer needs and wants to make profits.
  • Marketing environment. All of the social and physical stimuli in consumers' environments that are under the control of the marketing manager.
  • Marketing strategy. A plan designed to influence exchanges to achieve organizational objectives. From a consumer analysis point of view, marketing strategy is a set of stimuli placed in consumers' environments designed to influence their affect, cognition, and behavior.
  • Market segmentation. The process of dividing a market into groups of similar consumers and selecting the most appropriate group(s) for the firm to serve.
  • Maslow's need hierarchy. A popular theory of human needs developed by Abraham Maslow. The theory suggests that humans satisfy their needs in a sequential order starting with physiological needs (food, water, sex) and ranging through safety needs (protection from harm), belongingness and love needs (companionship), esteem needs (prestige, respect of others), and self-actualization needs (self-fulfillment).
  • Materialism. A multidimensional value held by many consumers in developed countries; includes possessiveness, envy of other people's possessions, and nongenerosity.
  • Meanings. People's personal interpretations (cognitive representations, knowledge, or beliefs) of stimuli in the environment.
  • Means–end chain. A simple knowledge structure that links product attributes to more functional and social consequences and perhaps to high-level consumer values. Means–end chains organize consumers' product knowledge in terms of its selfrelevance.
  • MECCAS model. Attempts to simplify the difficult task of developing effective advertising strategies by identifying five key factors; stands for means–end chain conceptualization of advertising strategy.
  • Metaphor. An expression that helps one understand one thing in terms of another (the market is stronger than new rope). A metaphor can communicate both cognitive and affective meanings about a brand or company. Metaphors are important elements in marketing strategies.
  • Micro environment. Characteristics or features of the immediate, surrounding environment, such as the furnishings in the room where you are or the number of people close to you. See environment.
  • Micro social environment. Important aspects of consumers' immediate social environment, especially reference groups and family.
  • Modeling. See vicarious learning.
  • Modern family life cycle. The various life stages for modern American families, including the stages of the traditional family life cycle plus other stages found in modern culture such as divorce, single (never married), and single parents.
  • Multiattribute attitude models. Models designed to predict consumers' attitudes toward objects (such as brands) or behaviors (such as buying a brand) based on their beliefs about and evaluations of associated attributes or expected consequences.
  • Multiple-baseline design. Commonly used in applied behavior analysis, designs that demonstrate the effect of an intervention across several different behaviors, individuals, or situations at different times.
  • Negative disconfirmation. In consumer satisfaction theory, a situation in which a product performs worse than expected.
  • Negative reinforcement. Occurs when the frequency of a given behavior is increased by removing an aversive stimulus. See also reinforcement.
  • Noncompensatory integration processes. Choice strategies in which the positive and negative consequences of the choice alternatives do not balance or compensate for each other. See also compensatory integration processes. In evaluating alternatives using noncompensatory rules, positive and negative consequences of alternatives do not compensate for each other. Included among the types of noncompensatory integration processes are conjunctive, disjunctive, and lexicographic. The conjunctive rule suggests that consumers establish a minimum acceptable level for each choice criterion and accept an alternative only if it equals or exceeds the minimum cutoff level for every criterion. The disjunctive rule suggests that consumers establish acceptable standards for each criterion and accept an alternative if it exceeds the standard on at least one criterion. The lexicographic rule suggests that consumers rank choice criteria from most to least important and choose the best alternative on the most important criterion.
  • Nonfamily households. Unrelated people living together in the same household -- about 30 percent of American households.
  • Observability. The degree to which products or their effects can be sensed by other consumers.
  • Operant conditioning. The process of altering the probability of a behavior being emitted by changing the consequences of the behavior.
  • Opportunity to process. The extent to which consumers have the chance to attend to and comprehend marketing information; can be affected by factors such as time pressure, consumers' affective states, and distractions.
  • Overt consumer behavior. The observable and measurable responses or actions of consumers.
  • Overt modeling. The most common form of vicarious learning; requires that consumers actually observe the model performing the behavior.
  • Penetration pricing. A pricing strategy that includes a plan to sequentially raise prices after introduction at a relatively low price.
  • Perceived risks. The expected negative consequences of performing an action such as purchasing a product.
  • Peripheral route to persuasion. One of two types of cognitive processes by which persuasion occurs. In the peripheral route, the consumer focuses not on the product message in an ad but on "peripheral" stimuli such as an attractive, wellknown celebrity or popular music. Consumers' feelings about these other stimuli may influence beliefs and attitudes about the product. Compare with central route to persuasion.
  • Personality. The general, relatively consistent pattern of responses to the environment exhibited by an individual.
  • Personal selling. Direct personal interactions between a salesperson and a potential buyer.
  • Person/situation segmentation. Occurs when markets are divided on the basis of the usage situation in conjunction with individual differences of consumers.
  • Persuasion. The cognitive and affective processes by which consumers' beliefs and attitudes are changed by promotion communications.
  • Physical environment. The collection of nonhuman, physical, tangible elements that comprises the field in which consumer behavior occurs. Compare with social environment.
  • Place utility. Utility that occurs when goods and services are made available where the consumer wants to purchase them.
  • Positioning. See product positioning.
  • Positioning by attribute. Probably the most frequently used positioning strategy; associates a product with an attribute, a product feature, or a customer benefit.
  • Positioning by competitors. A positioning strategy where the explicit or implicit frame of reference is the competition.
  • Positioning by product class. A positioning strategy involving product class associations (for example, positioning a brand of margarine with respect to butter).
  • Positioning by product user. A positioning approach where a product is associated with a user or class of users.
  • Positioning by use. A positioning strategy where the product is associated with its use or application.
  • Positioning map. A visual depiction of consumers' perceptions of competitive products, brands, or models on selected dimensions.
  • Positive disconfirmation. In consumer satisfaction theory, a situation in which a product performs better than expected.
  • Positive reinforcement. Occurs when rewards are given to increase the frequency with which a given behavior is likely to occur. See also reinforcement.
  • Possession utility. Utility that occurs when channels facilitate the transfer of ownership of goods to the consumer.
  • Postpurchase perceptions. Consumers' thoughts about how well a product performed after purchase.
  • Preconscious attention. The highly automatic, largely unconscious selection of certain stimuli for simple cognitive processing. More likely for familiar concepts of low importance. Further processing tends to lead to focal attention.
  • Prepurchase expectations. Consumers' beliefs about anticipated performance of a product.
  • Price elasticity. A measure of the relative change in demand for a product for a given change in dollar price.
  • Price perceptions. How price information is comprehended by consumers and made meaningful to them.
  • Problem representation. Consumers' cognitive representation of the various aspects of the decision problem. Includes an end goal, a set of subgoals, relevant product knowledge, and a set of choice rules or simple heuristics by which consumers search for, evaluate, and integrate this knowledge to reach a choice.
  • Problem solving. A general approach to understanding consumer decision making. Focuses on consumers' cognitive representation of the decision as a problem. Important aspects of the problem representation include end goals, subgoals, and relevant knowledge. Consumers construct a decision plan by integrating knowledge within the constraints of the problem representation.
  • Procedural knowledge. Consumers' cognitive representations of how to perform behaviors. See also script.
  • Product contact. The actual behaviors consumers perform in coming into physical contact with products.
  • Product knowledge and involvement. Two very important concepts for understanding consumer cognition and affect; influence how consumers interpret and integrate information during decision making. See knowledge, involvement, consumer decision making, interpretation processes, and integration processes.
  • Product positioning. Designing and executing a marketing strategy to form a particular mental representation of a product or brand in consumers' minds. Typically the goal is to position the product in some favorable way relative to competitive offerings.
  • Product symbolism. The various meanings of a product to a consumer and what the consumer experiences in purchasing and using it.
  • Promotion clutter. The growing number of competitive promotion strategies in the environment.
  • Promotions. Information that marketers develop to communicate meanings about their products and persuade consumers to buy them.
  • Promotion strategies. Strategies used by marketers to help them achieve their promotion objectives; include advertising, sales promotions, personal selling, and publicity.
  • Psychographic segmentation. Dividing markets into segments on the basis of consumer lifestyles.
  • Psychosocial consequences. Refers to two types of outcomes or consequences of product use: psychological consequences (I feel good about myself) and social consequences (Other people are making fun of me).
  • Publicity. Any unpaid form of communication about the marketer's company, products, or brand.
  • Pull strategies. Ways to encourage the consumer to purchase the manufacturer's brand, such as cents-off coupons.
  • Punishment. The process in which a response is followed by a noxious or aversive event, thus decreasing the frequency of the response.
  • Purchase intention. A decision plan or intention to buy a particular product or brand. See also behavioral intention.
  • Purchasing situation. Includes the physical and social stimuli that are present in the environment where the consumer actually makes the purchase.
  • Push strategies. Ways to enhance the selling efforts of retailers, such as trade discounts.
  • Reciprocal system. The idea that affect and cognition, behavior, and the environment cause and are caused by each other continuously over time.
  • Reference group. People who influence an individual's affect, cognitions, and behaviors.
  • Reinforcement. A consequence that occurs after a behavior that increases the probability of future behavior of the same type.
  • Reinforcement schedule. The rate at which rewards are offered in attempts to operantly condition behavior.
  • Relevant knowledge. Appropriate or useful knowledge activated from memory in the context of a decision or interpretation situation.
  • Respondent conditioning. See classical conditioning.
  • Response hierarchy. The total list of behaviors a consumer could perform at any given time, arranged from most probable to least probable.
  • Restructuring. A rare type of cognitive learning that occurs when an entire associative network of knowledge is revised, reorganizing old knowledge and creating entirely new meanings. Very complex and infrequent compared with accretion and tuning.
  • Reversal design. An approach in which the problem behavior of a subject or group of subjects is first assessed to determine baseline performance. After a stable rate of behavior is determined, the intervention is introduced until behavior changes. The intervention is then withdrawn and reintroduced to determine if it is influencing the behavior.
  • Rituals. Actions or behaviors performed by consumers to create, affirm, evoke, revise, or obtain desired symbolic cultural meanings.
  • Routinized choice behavior. A purchase involving little cognitive and behavioral effort and perhaps no decision. Purchase could be merely carrying out an existing decision plan. Compare with limited decision making and extensive decision making.
  • Sales promotion. A direct inducement to consumers to make a purchase, such as coupons or cents-off deals.
  • Salient beliefs. The set of beliefs activated in a particular situation; may be represented as an associative network of linked meanings.
  • Scanner cable method. A commercially available retail marketing research approach that documents household purchases by recording items scanned in supermarkets and other stores.
  • Schema. An associative network of interrelated meanings that represents a person's declarative knowledge about some concept. Compare with script.
  • Script. A sequence of productions or mental representations of the appropriate actions associated with particular events. Consumers often form scripts to organize their knowledge about behaviors to perform in familiar situations. Compare with schema.
  • Segmentation. See market segmentation.
  • Segmentation strategy. The general approach marketers use to approach markets, such as mass marketing or marketing to one or more segments.
  • Selective exposure. A process by which people selectively come into contact with information in their environment. For instance, consumers may avoid marketing information by leaving the room while commercials are on TV.
  • Self-concept. The ideas, meanings, attitudes, and knowledge people have about themselves. See also self-schema.
  • Self-regulation. A form of ethical influence employed by marketers. Many professions have codes of ethics, and many firms have their own consumer affairs offices that seek to ensure the consumer is treated fairly.
  • Self-schema. An associative network of interrelated knowledge, meanings, and beliefs about oneself. See also self-concept.
  • Semantic knowledge. The general meanings and beliefs people have acquired about their world. Compare with episodic knowledge.
  • Shaping. A process of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior, or of other required behaviors, to increase the probability of the desired response.
  • Shopping situation. The physical and spatial characteristics of the environments where consumers shop for products and services.
  • Simplicity. The degree to which a product is easy for a consumer to understand and use.
  • Situation. The ongoing stream of reciprocal interactions among goal-directed behaviors, affective and cognitive responses, and environmental factors that occur over a defined period of time. Situations have a purpose and a beginning, middle, and end.
  • Situational involvement. Temporary interest or concern with a product or a behavior brought about by the situational context. For example, a consumer may become situationally involved with buying a hot water heater if the old one breaks. See also situational selfrelevance. Compare with enduring involvement.
  • Situational self-relevance. Temporary feelings of self-relevance due to specific external physical and social stimuli in the environment. Compare with intrinsic self-relevance.
  • Skimming pricing. A pricing strategy that includes a plan to systematically lower prices after a high-price introduction.
  • Social class. A status hierarchy by which groups and individuals are categorized on the basis of esteem and prestige.
  • Social environment. Includes all human activities in social interactions.
  • Socialization. The processes by which an individual learns the values and appropriate behavior patterns of a group, institution, or culture. Socialization is strongly influenced by family, reference groups, and social class.
  • Social learning theory. One of a number of theories of human behavior.
  • Social marketing. The application of commercial marketing technologies to the analysis, planning, execution, and evaluation of programs designed to influence the voluntary behavior of target audiences to improve their personal welfare and that of their society.
  • Social stratification. See social class.
  • Speed. Refers to how quickly the customer experiences the benefits of the product.
  • Spreading activation. A usually unconscious process in which interrelated parts of a knowledge structure are activated during interpretation and integration processes (or even daydreaming).
  • Store atmosphere. Emotional states that consumers experience in a store but may not be fully conscious of while shopping.
  • Store contact. An important aspect of most consumer goods purchases; includes locating the outlet, traveling to the outlet, and entering the outlet.
  • Store image. The set of meanings consumers associate with a particular store.
  • Store layout. The basic floor plan and display of merchandise within a store. At a basic level, this influences such factors as how long the consumer stays in the store, how many products the consumer comes into visual contact with, and what routes the consumer travels within the store. Two basic types are grid layout and free-form layout .
  • Store location. Where a store is situated in a specific geographic area.
  • Store loyalty. The degree to which a consumer consistently patronizes the same store when shopping for particular types of products.
  • Store patronage. The degree to which a consumer shops at a particular store relative to competitive outlets.
  • Subcultures. Segments within a culture that share a set of distinguishing meanings, values, and patterns of behavior that differ from those of the overall culture.
  • Subjective norm or social norm (SN). Consumers' perceptions of what other people want them to do.
  • Subliminal perception. A psychological view that suggests attitudes and behaviors can be changed by stimuli that are not consciously perceived.
  • Symbolic meaning. The set of psychological and social meanings products have for consumers. More abstract meanings than physical attributes and functional consequences.
  • Theory of reasoned action. A theory developed by Martin Fishbein that assumes consumers consciously consider the consequences of alternative behaviors and choose the one that leads to the most desirable outcomes. The theory states that behavior is strongly influenced by behavioral intentions, which in turn are determined by attitudes toward performing the behavior and social normative beliefs about the behavior.
  • Time utility. Utility that occurs when channels make goods and services available to the consumer when the consumer wants to purchase them.
  • Trade promotion. Marketing tactics, such as advertising or display allowances, designed to get channel members to provide special support for products or services.
  • Transactions. The exchanges of funds, time, cognitive activity, and behavior effort for products and services. In a micro sense, the primary objective of marketing, where consumers' funds are exchanged for products and services.
  • Trialability. The degree to which a product can be tried on a limited basis or divided into small quantities for an inexpensive trial.
  • Tuning. A type of cognitive learning that occurs when parts of a knowledge structure are combined and given a new, more abstract meaning. More complex and less frequent than accretion.
  • Unconscious. An important characteristic of humans' cognitive systems where much "thinking" occurs below the level of conscious awareness.
  • Unit pricing. Common for grocery products, a method using a shelf tag that indicates the price per unit for a specific good.
  • Utilitarian reference group influence. Compliance of an individual with perceived expectations of others to obtain rewards or avoid punishments.
  • VALSTM. An acronym standing for "values and lifestyles." VALSTM and GeoVALSTM are wellknown psychographic segmentations marketed by SRI Consulting Business Intelligence.
  • Value-expressive reference group influence. An individual's use of groups to enhance or support his or her self-concept.
  • Values. The cognitive representations of important, abstract life goals that consumers are trying to achieve.
  • Variable ratio schedule. Occurs when a reinforcer follows a desired consequence on an average at one-half, one-third, or one-fourth (and so on) of the time the behavior occurs, but not necessarily every second, third, or fourth time.
  • Variety seeking. A cognitive commitment to purchase different brands because of factors such as the stimulation involved in trying different things, curiosity, novelty, or overcoming boredom with the same old thing.
  • Verbal modeling. A type of modeling in which behaviors are not demonstrated and people are not asked to imagine a model performing a behavior; instead, people are told how others similar to themselves behaved in a particular situation.
  • Vicarious learning. Processes by which people change their behavior because they observed the actions of other people and the consequences that occurred.
  • Word-of-mouth communication (WOM). Communication that occurs when consumers share information with friends about products and/or promotions such as good deals on particular products, a valuable coupon in the newspaper, or a sale at a retail store.
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