Difference between revisions of "Workforce Arrangements Quarter"

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[[Workgroup Design Quarter]] (hereinafter, the ''Quarter'') is the first of four lectures of [[Operations Quadrivium]] (hereinafter, the ''Quadrivium''):
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[[Workforce Arrangements Quarter]] (hereinafter, the ''Quarter'') is a lecture introducing the learners to [[team design]] primarily through key topics related to [[workgroup design]]. The ''Quarter'' is the third of four lectures of [[Team Quadrivium]], which is the sixth of seven modules of '''[[Septem Artes Administrativi]]''' (hereinafter, the ''Course''). The ''Course'' is designed to introduce the learners to general concepts in [[business administration]], [[management]], and [[organizational behavior]].
*The ''Quarter'' is designed to introduce its learners to [[enterprise discovery]], or, in other words, to concepts related to obtaining data needed to administer the [[enterprise effort]]; and
 
*The ''Quadrivium'' examines concepts of administering various types of enterprises known as [[enterprise administration]] as a whole.
 
 
 
The ''Quadrivium'' is the first of seven modules of [[Septem Artes Administrativi]], which is a course designed to introduce its learners to general concepts in [[business administration]], [[management]], and [[organizational behavior]].
 
  
  
 
==Outline==
 
==Outline==
''The predecessor lecture is [[Risk Analysis Quarter]].''
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''[[Regulatory Сompliance Quarter]] is the predecessor lecture.  In the [[enterprise envisioning]] series, the previous lecture is [[User Experience Quarter]].''
  
 
===Concepts===
 
===Concepts===
#'''[[Workgroup design]]'''.
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#'''[[Workforce arrangement]]'''. The action, process, or result of arranging or being arranged that an [[enterprise]] does for and/or offers to its various [[workgroup]]s and/or [[workteam]]s.
#*[[Organizational behavior]]. A field of study that investigates the impact individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within [[organization]]s, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization's [[effectiveness]].
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#*[[Enterprise workforce]].  
#'''[[Group]]'''. Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular goals.
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#*[[Workforce diversity]]. (1) The ways in which people in an [[enterprise]] are different from and similar to one another; (2) The concept that [[enterprise]]s are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of gender, age, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and other characteristics.
#*[[Informal group]]. A group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined; such a group appears in response to the need for social contact.
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#'''[[Decision-making authority design]]'''.
#*[[Formal group]]. A designated workgroup defined by an organization's structure.
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#*[[Decentralization]]. The degree to which lower-level employees provide input or actually make decisions.
#*[[Interacting group]]. A typical group in which members interact with each other face to face.
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#*[[Centralization]]. The degree to which [[decision-making]] is concentrated at a single point, usually at upper levels, in an [[organization]].
#*[[Reference group]]. An important group to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform.
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#'''[[Workgroup]]'''. A [[group]] that interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help each group member perform within his or her area of responsibility.<blockquote><table class="wikitable" width=100% style="text-align:center;"><tr><td colspan="2">'''Productivity criteria'''</td><th>[[Interacting group]]</th><th>[[Brainstorming group]]</th><th>[[Nominal group]]</th><th>[[Electronic group]]</th></tr><tr><th>[[Idea]]s</th><td>Number and quality of [[idea]]s</td><td>Low</td><td>Moderate</td><td>High</td><td>High</td></tr><tr><th>[[Groupthink]]</th><td>Social pressure</td><td>High</td><td>Low</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Low</td></tr><tr><th>Expenses</th><td>Money costs to form the group</td><td>Low</td><td>Low</td><td>Low</td><td>Moderate</td></tr><tr><th>Speed</th><td>Speed of group operations</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Moderate</td></tr><tr><th>Consistency</th><td>Task orientation</td><td>Low</td><td>High</td><td>High</td><td>High</td></tr><tr><th>[[Conflict]]</th><td>Potential of [[interpersonal conflict]]</td><td>High</td><td>Low</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Low</td></tr><tr><th>Commitment</th><td>Commitment to [[solution]]</td><td>High</td><td>Not applicable</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Moderate</td></tr><tr><th>[[group cohesiveness|Cohesiveness]]</th><td>Development of [[group cohesiveness]]</td><td>High</td><td>High</td><td>Moderate</td><td>Low</td></tr></table></blockquote>
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#'''[[Group functioning]]'''. The quantity and quality of a group's work output.
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#*[[Social loafing]]. The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually.
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#*[[Group decision-making]]. [[Decision-making]] made by a [[group]] as opposed to [[individual decision-making]].<blockquote><table class="wikitable" width=100% style="text-align:center;"><tr><td colspan="2">'''[[Decision-making]]'''</td><th>[[Individual decision-making]]</th><th>[[Group decision-making]]</th></tr><tr><th>[[Idea]]s</th><td>Number and quality of [[idea]]s</td><td>Varies; tends to be moderate</td><td>High</td></tr><tr><th>[[Groupthink]]</th><td>Social pressure</td><td>Not applicable</td><td>Varies; tends to be high</td></tr><tr><th>Expenses</th><td>Money costs to form the group</td><td>Not applicable</td><td>Low</td></tr><tr><th>Speed</th><td>Speed of group operations</td><td>Varies; tends to be high</td><td>Moderate to low</td></tr><tr><th>Consistency</th><td>Task orientation</td><td>Varies; tends to be high</td><td>Varies; tends to be moderate</td></tr><tr><th>[[Conflict]]</th><td>Potential of [[interpersonal conflict]]</td><td>Not applicable</td><td>Varies; tends to be high</td></tr><tr><th>Commitment</th><td>Commitment to [[solution]]</td><td>Varies; tends to be moderate</td><td>Varies; tends to be high</td></tr></table></blockquote>
 
#'''[[Role]]'''. A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.
 
#'''[[Role]]'''. A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.
 
#*[[Role ambiguity]]. When role expectations are not clearly understood.
 
#*[[Role ambiguity]]. When role expectations are not clearly understood.
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#*[[Role overload]]. Having more work to accomplish than time permits.
 
#*[[Role overload]]. Having more work to accomplish than time permits.
 
#*[[Role perception]]. An individual's view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation.
 
#*[[Role perception]]. An individual's view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation.
#'''[[Status]]'''. A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.
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#'''[[Workteam]]'''. (1) A [[group]] whose members work intensely on a specific, common goal using their positive synergy, individual and mutual accountability, and complementary skills; (2) A [[group]] whose individual efforts result in performance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs.<blockquote><table class="wikitable" width=100% style="text-align:center;"><tr><td>Comparison criteria</td><th>[[Workgroup]]</th><th>[[Workteam]]</th></tr><tr><th>Goal</th><td>Information sharing</td><td>Collective performance</td></tr><tr><th>Synergy</th><td>Neutral (sometimes, negative)</td><td>Positive</td></tr><tr><th>Accountability</th><td>Individual</td><td>Both individual and mutual</td></tr><tr><th>Skills</th><td>Random and varied</td><td>Complementary</td></tr></table></blockquote>
#*[[Status characteristics theory]]. A theory that states that differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups.
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#*[[Self-managed workteam]]. (1) A [[workteam]] that operates without a manager and is responsible for a complete work process or segment; (2) A [[workteam]] usually of 10 to 15 people who take on responsibilities of their former supervisors.
#'''[[Group cohesion]]'''. The extend to which members of a group support and validate one another while at work.
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#*[[Virtual team]]. A [[workteam]] that uses computer technology to link physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.
#*[[Group cohesiveness]]. The degree to which group members are attracted to one another and share the group's goals.
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#*[[Problem-solving team]]. A [[workteam]] usually of 5 to 12 employees from the same department of functional area who meet often for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving work activities or solve specific problems such as quality, efficiency, and the work environment.
#*[[Group cohesion]]. A situation when group members are emotionally attached to one another and motivated toward the group because of their attachment.
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#*[[Cross-functional team]]. A [[workteam]] composed of employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task.
#'''[[Norm]]'''. A standard or expectation that is accepted and shared by a group's members.
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#*[[Cross-hierarchical team]]. A [[workteam]] composed of employees from different hierarchical levels.
#*[[Norm]]. An acceptable standard of behavior within a group that is shared by the group's members.
 
#'''[[Groupthink]]'''. A phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.
 
#*[[Groupthink]]. When a group exerts extensive pressure on an individual to align her or his opinion with others; opinions.
 
#*[[Conformity]]. The adjustment of one's behavior to align with the norms of the group.
 
#*[[Hawthorne Studies]]. A series of studies during the 1920s and 1930s that provided new insights into individual and group behavior.
 
#'''[[Groupshift]]'''. A change between a group's decision and individual decision that a member within the group would make; the shift can be toward either conservatism or greater risk but it generally is toward a more extreme version of the group's original position.
 
#*[[Stereotype threat]]. The degree to which we internally agree with the generally negative stereotyped perceptions of our groups.
 
#'''[[Group functioning]]'''. The quantity and quality of a group's work output.
 
#*[[Social loafing]]. The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually.
 
#'''[[Workgroup]]'''. A [[group]] that interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help each group member perform within his or her area of responsibility.
 
#'''[[Group decision-making]]'''. [[Decision making]] made by a [[group]] as opposed to [[individual decision-making]].
 
#'''[[Employee empowerment]]'''. Giving employees more [[authority]] (power) to make decisions.
 
#*[[Decentralization]]. The degree to which lower-level employees provide input or actually make decisions.
 
#*[[Centralization]]. The degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point, usually at upper levels, in an [[organization]].
 
#'''[[Workteam]]'''. A [[group]] whose individual efforts result in performance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs.
 
#*[[Workteam]]. A group whose members work intensely on a specific, common goal using their positive synergy, individual and mutual accountability, and complementary skills.
 
#*[[Self-managed workteam]]. A [[workteam]] of 10 to 15 people who take on responsibilities of their former supervisors.
 
#*[[Self-managed workteam]]. A type of [[workteam]] that operates without a manager and is responsible for a complete work process or segment.
 
#*[[Virtual team]]. A [[workteam]] that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.
 
#*[[Virtual team]]. A type of [[workteam]] that uses technology to link physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.
 
#*[[Problem-solving team]]. A [[workteam]] of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment.
 
#*[[Problem-solving team]]. A [[workteam]] from the same department of functional area that's involved in efforts to improve work activities or solve specific problems.
 
#*[[Cross-functional team]]. A [[workteam]] composed of individuals from various functional specialties.
 
#*[[Cross-functional team]]. A [[workteam]] of employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task.
 
#*[[Multiteam system]]. A collection of two or more interdependent teams that share a superordinate goal; a team of teams.
 
#'''[[Team building]]'''. High interaction among team members to increase trust and openness.
 
#*[[Pair working]]. A scenario where two [[team member]]s share a single workstation and work together to develop a single feature.
 
#*[[Swarming]]. Mutual work of team members with appropriate skills work together to complete a task that a team member is having trouble completing on his or her own.
 
#*[[Team efficacy]]. A team's collective belief that they can succeed at their tasks.
 
#*[[Team identity]]. A team member's affinity for and sense of belongingness to his or her team.
 
 
#'''[[Team characteristic]]'''.  
 
#'''[[Team characteristic]]'''.  
 
#*[[Reflexivity]]. A team characteristic of reflecting on and adjusting the master plan when necessary.
 
#*[[Reflexivity]]. A team characteristic of reflecting on and adjusting the master plan when necessary.
 
#*[[Mental model]]. Team members' knowledge and beliefs about how the work gets done by the team.
 
#*[[Mental model]]. Team members' knowledge and beliefs about how the work gets done by the team.
#'''[[Job design]]'''. The way tasks are combined to form complete jobs.
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#*[[Team efficacy]]. A team's collective belief that they can succeed at their tasks.
#*[[Job design]]. The way the elements in a job are organized.
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#*[[Team identity]]. A team member's affinity for and sense of belongingness to his or her team.
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#'''[[Job design]]'''. The way tasks are combined to form complete jobs or, in other words, the way the elements in a job are organized.
 
#*[[Proactive perspective of work design]]. An approach to [[job design]] in which employees take the initiative to change how their work is performed.
 
#*[[Proactive perspective of work design]]. An approach to [[job design]] in which employees take the initiative to change how their work is performed.
 
#*[[Relational job design]]. Constructing jobs so employees see the positive difference they can make in the lives of others directly through their network.
 
#*[[Relational job design]]. Constructing jobs so employees see the positive difference they can make in the lives of others directly through their network.
 
#*[[Relational perspective of work design]]. An approach to [[job design]] that focuses on how people's tasks and jobs are increasingly based on social relationships.
 
#*[[Relational perspective of work design]]. An approach to [[job design]] that focuses on how people's tasks and jobs are increasingly based on social relationships.
#'''[[Job characteristics model]]'''. A framework for analyzing and designing jobs that identifies five primary core job dimensions, their interrelationships, and their impact on outcomes.
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#'''[[Job involvement]]'''. The degree to which an employee identifies with her or his job, actively participates in it, and considers her or his job performance to be important self-worth.
#*[[Job characteristics model]]. A model that proposes that any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.
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#*[[Personality-job fit theory]]. A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover.
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#*[[Person-organization fit]]. A theory that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values, and leave when there is not compatibility.
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#[[File:Work-specialization.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Work specialization]]]]'''[[Work specialization]]'''. (1) The degree to which tasks in an [[organization]] are subdivided into separate jobs; (2) The process of dividing work activities into separate job tasks.
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#*[[Formalization]]. The degree to which jobs within an [[organization]] are standardized and/or the extent to which employee behavior is guided by rules and procedures.
 
#*[[Job depth]]. The degree of control employees have over their work.
 
#*[[Job depth]]. The degree of control employees have over their work.
 
#*[[Job score]]. The number of different tasks required in a job and the frequency with which those tasks are repeated.
 
#*[[Job score]]. The number of different tasks required in a job and the frequency with which those tasks are repeated.
#*[[Autonomy]]. The degree to which a job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.
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#'''[[Occupation]]'''. The regular activity that a person undertakes in order to earn his or her livelihood. That activity can be a job, profession, or position that somebody works in. Entrepreneurs may refer their [[occupation]] as [[self-employed]].
#*[[Autonomy]]. The degree to which a job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.
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#*[[Formalization]]. The degree to which jobs within an [[organization]] are standardized and/or the extent to which employee behavior is guided by rules and procedures.
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===Roles===
#*[[High-involvement work practice]]. Work practice designed to elicit greater input or involvement from workers in order to lead to both high individual and high organizational performance.
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#[[File:Team-roles.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Team role]]s]]'''[[Team role]]'''. A [[role]] that one plays while being a team member.
#'''[[Job involvement]]'''. The degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-worth.
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#*[[Organizer]].  
#*[[Job involvement]]. The degree to which an employee identifies with her or his job, actively participates in it, and considers her or his job performance to be important self-worth.
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#*[[Producer]].  
#*[[Personality-job fit theory]]. A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover.
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#*[[Controller]].  
#*[[Person-organization fit]]. A theory that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values, and leave when there is not compatibility.
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#*[[Maintainer]].  
#'''[[Work specialization]]'''. Dividing work activities into separate job tasks.
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#*[[Adviser]].  
#*[[Work specialization]]. The degree to which tasks in an [[organization]] are subdivided into separate jobs.
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#*[[Linker]].  
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#*[[Creator]].  
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#*[[Promoter]].  
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#*[[Assessor]].  
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#'''[[Human factors ergonomist]]'''. A professional who designs objects, facilities, and environments to optimize human well-being and overall system performance, applying theory, principles, and data regarding the relationship between humans and respective technology. He or she investigates and analyzes characteristics of human behavior and performance as it relates to the use of technology.
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#'''[[Contingent worker]]'''. A temporary, freelance, or contract worker whose employment is contingent on demand for her or his services.
  
 
===Methods===
 
===Methods===
#'''[[Group decision-making technique]]'''.
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#'''[[Workforce strategic alignment]]'''. A group of techniques used to align [[workforce arrangement model]]s with [[business strategy|business strategi]]es. The ''alignment'' is usually based on assumptions that [[organic model]]s tend to be more costly, but more innovative and agile, while [[mechanistic model]]s tend to be more cost effective in stable [[operations]], but less-to-not productive in [[project]]s.<blockquote><table class="wikitable" width=100% style="text-align:center;"><tr><th>[[Organic model]]</th><th>[[Matrix model]]</th><th>[[Mechanistic model]]</th></tr><tr><td>[[Innovation strategy]], [[growth strategy]], [[startup pivot]]</td><td>[[Imitation strategy]]</td><td>[[Stability strategy]], [[cost-minimization strategy]]</td></tr></table></blockquote>
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#'''[[Iterative work design]]'''. An established [[procedure]] for changing [[workgroup design]] and [[workforce development]].
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#*[[Job engagement]]. The investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance.
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#*[[Job enlargement]]. The horizontal expansion of a job by increasing [[job scope]].
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#*[[Job enrichment]]. The vertical expansion of a job by adding planning and evaluating responsibilities.
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#*[[Job rotation]]. The periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another.
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#'''[[Group decision-making technique]]'''. An established [[procedure]] for making decisions by a group.  
 
#*[[Nominal group technique]]. A [[group decision-making technique]] in which individual members meet face to face to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion.
 
#*[[Nominal group technique]]. A [[group decision-making technique]] in which individual members meet face to face to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion.
 
#*[[Thumb vote]]. A quick pulse to get a sense of where the team are in terms of commitment, or agreement on a decision, etc. thumb up generally means agree, yes, or good, and thumb down disagree, no or bad; the analog version of this allows the thumb to be anywhere on the half circle to indicate differing degrees of agreeability.
 
#*[[Thumb vote]]. A quick pulse to get a sense of where the team are in terms of commitment, or agreement on a decision, etc. thumb up generally means agree, yes, or good, and thumb down disagree, no or bad; the analog version of this allows the thumb to be anywhere on the half circle to indicate differing degrees of agreeability.
#'''[[Survey feedback]]'''. The use of questionnaires to identify discrepancies among member perceptions; discussion follows, and remedies are suggested.
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#'''[[Delphi method]]'''. A method of [[group decision-making]] and forecasting that involves successively collating the judgments of experts.
#'''[[Delphi method]]'''.
 
  
 
===Instruments===
 
===Instruments===
#'''[[Material symbol]]'''. What conveys to employees who is important, the degree of egalitarianism top management desires, and the kinds of behavior that are appropriate.
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#[[File:Team-effectiveness.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Team effectiveness model]]]]'''[[Team effectiveness model]]'''. A model that suggests that team effectiveness depends on three groups of factors, which are [[team context|context]], [[team composition|composition]], and [[team functioning|functioning]].
#'''[[Group decision tool]]'''.
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#*[[Team context]]. The circumstances that form the setting for a [[team]] including its adequate resources, leadership and structure, climate of trust, performance evaluation and reward systems.
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#*[[Team composition]]. The characteristics of each of [[team members]]s and the way of their assembly including abilities of members, personalities, allocating roles, diversity, size of teams, member flexibility, and member preferences.
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#*[[Team functioning]]. [[Workteam]]'s working or operating in a particular way including its common purpose, specific goals, team efficacy, conflict levels, and [[social loafing]].
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#'''[[Group decision tool]]'''. A tangible and/or software implement used to make decisions by a [[group]].  
 
#*[[Unanimity]] (or [[consensus]]). A [[group decision tool]] that makes a decision when every participant of the group agrees on a single action. An example of reaching unanimity is the [[Delphi technique]] wherein a selective group of experts answer questionnaires and give feedback on the responses of each round of gathering requirements.
 
#*[[Unanimity]] (or [[consensus]]). A [[group decision tool]] that makes a decision when every participant of the group agrees on a single action. An example of reaching unanimity is the [[Delphi technique]] wherein a selective group of experts answer questionnaires and give feedback on the responses of each round of gathering requirements.
#*[[Majority]]. A [[group decision tool]] that makes a decision when it is chosen by more than a half of the group participants. To avoid a tie, it is important to have an uneven number of participants during the group decision making.
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#*[[Majority]]. A [[group decision tool]] that makes a decision when it is chosen by more than a half of the group participants. To avoid a tie, it is important to have an uneven number of participants during the [[group decision-making]].
 
#*[[Plurality]]. A [[group decision tool]] that makes a decision when it is chosen by the largest block of the group. This is used when there are more than two options being nominated upon.
 
#*[[Plurality]]. A [[group decision tool]] that makes a decision when it is chosen by the largest block of the group. This is used when there are more than two options being nominated upon.
 
#*[[Dictatorship]]. A [[group decision tool]] that makes a decision when it is made only by one individual -- usually the [[leader]] -- for the entire group.
 
#*[[Dictatorship]]. A [[group decision tool]] that makes a decision when it is made only by one individual -- usually the [[leader]] -- for the entire group.
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#'''[[Workforce arrangement model]]'''.
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#*[[Matrix model]]. A [[workforce arrangement model]] that combines one or more [[organic model|organic]] and/or [[mechanistic model]]s simultaneously. In this ''model'', every [[team member]] is a part of two different structures and, if both of them are [[mechanistic model|mechanistic]], the [[workforce arrangement]] that utilizes the [[matrix model]] have dual lines of [[authority]]. Usually, but not necessarily, [[matrix model]]s combine (1) [[functional structure|functional]] and [[divisional structure]]s, (2) [[functional structure]]s and [[project team]]s that use specialists from those ''functional structures'' to work on one or more projects and [[project manager]]s to share responsibility with the [[functional manager]]s for assigning priorities and for directing the work of individuals assigned to every project, or, especially in the case of [[circular model]], (3) two or more [[simple structure]]s.
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#*[[Circular model]]. A [[matrix model]] in which executives are at the center, spreading their vision and, often, directives, sometimes conflicting, outward in rings grouped by function (for instance, managers, then specialists, then workers or, in many families, parents, then grandparents, then children, etc.).
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#'''[[Mechanistic model]]'''. A [[workforce arrangement model]] that is rigid and tightly controlled. Usually, those [[workforce arrangement]]s that utilize this ''model'' are characterized by [[centralization]] and, as they outgrow [[startup stage]]s, extensive departmentalization, high formalization, and a limited information network.
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#*[[File:Simple-structure.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Simple structure]]]][[Simple structure]]. A [[workforce arrangement model]] characterized by a low degree of [[departmentalization]], wide [[span of control|spans of control]], [[authority]] centralized in a single person, and little [[formalization]].
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#*[[Bureaucracy]]. A [[workforce arrangement model]] characterized by [[division of labor]], a clearly defined hierarchy, very formalized rules and regulations, highly routine operating tasks that are grouped into functional departments and achieved through [[specialization]], centralized [[authority]], narrow spans of control, and [[decision-making]] that follows the chain of command. Impersonal relationships usually play a vital role in making decisions in [[bureaucracy|bureaucraci]]es.
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#*[[Divisional structure]]. A [[workforce arrangement model]] made up of separate, semi-autonomous units or divisions. These units or divisions group employees by product, process, customer, or geographical market area.
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#*[[File:Org-struct.png|400px|thumb|right|[[Functional structure]]]][[Functional structure]]. A [[workforce arrangement model]] that groups employees by their similar specialties, roles, and tasks.
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#'''[[Organic model]]'''. A [[workforce arrangement model]] that is highly adaptive and flexible. Usually, those [[workforce arrangement]]s that utilize this ''model'' are flat, use cross-hierarchical and cross-functional formations, have low formalization, possesse a comprehensive information network, are characterized by [[decentralization]], and a high degree of [[participative decision-making]].
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#*[[Boundaryless arrangement]]. A part or, possibly, the whole of the [[enterprise workforce]], which structure is not defined by, or limited to, the horizontal, vertical, or external boundaries imposed by a predefined structure.
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#*[[Projectized arrangement]]. A part or, possibly, the whole of the [[enterprise workforce]] in which employees continuously work on [[project]]s, directly and/or indirectly while controlling, directing, and/or supporting them.
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#*[[Virtual arrangement]]. A part or the whole of the [[enterprise workforce]] that consists of a small core of full-time employees and outside specialists temporarily hired as needed to work on [[project]]s.
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#*[[Multiteam arrangement]]. A collection of two or more interdependent teams that share a [[superordinate goal]]; a team of teams.
 
#'''[[Open workplace]]'''. Workplace with few physical barriers and enclosures.
 
#'''[[Open workplace]]'''. Workplace with few physical barriers and enclosures.
  
 
===Practices===
 
===Practices===
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*[[Organizational behavior]]. A field of study that investigates the impact individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within [[organization]]s, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization's [[effectiveness]].
  
''The successor lecture is [[Workteam Leadership Quarter]].''
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''[[Leadership Quarter]] is the successor lecture. In the [[enterprise envisioning]] series, the next lecture is [[Organizational Culture Quarter]].''
  
 
==Materials==
 
==Materials==
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==See also==
 
==See also==
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[[Category:Septem Artes Administrativi]][[Category:Lecture notes]]

Latest revision as of 20:14, 30 May 2020

Workforce Arrangements Quarter (hereinafter, the Quarter) is a lecture introducing the learners to team design primarily through key topics related to workgroup design. The Quarter is the third of four lectures of Team Quadrivium, which is the sixth of seven modules of Septem Artes Administrativi (hereinafter, the Course). The Course is designed to introduce the learners to general concepts in business administration, management, and organizational behavior.


Outline

Regulatory Сompliance Quarter is the predecessor lecture. In the enterprise envisioning series, the previous lecture is User Experience Quarter.

Concepts

  1. Workforce arrangement. The action, process, or result of arranging or being arranged that an enterprise does for and/or offers to its various workgroups and/or workteams.
  2. Decision-making authority design.
  3. Workgroup. A group that interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help each group member perform within his or her area of responsibility.
    Productivity criteriaInteracting groupBrainstorming groupNominal groupElectronic group
    IdeasNumber and quality of ideasLowModerateHighHigh
    GroupthinkSocial pressureHighLowModerateLow
    ExpensesMoney costs to form the groupLowLowLowModerate
    SpeedSpeed of group operationsModerateModerateModerateModerate
    ConsistencyTask orientationLowHighHighHigh
    ConflictPotential of interpersonal conflictHighLowModerateLow
    CommitmentCommitment to solutionHighNot applicableModerateModerate
    CohesivenessDevelopment of group cohesivenessHighHighModerateLow
  4. Group functioning. The quantity and quality of a group's work output.
  5. Role. A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.
    • Role ambiguity. When role expectations are not clearly understood.
    • Role expectations. How others believe a person should act in a given situation.
    • Role overload. Having more work to accomplish than time permits.
    • Role perception. An individual's view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation.
  6. Workteam. (1) A group whose members work intensely on a specific, common goal using their positive synergy, individual and mutual accountability, and complementary skills; (2) A group whose individual efforts result in performance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs.
    Comparison criteriaWorkgroupWorkteam
    GoalInformation sharingCollective performance
    SynergyNeutral (sometimes, negative)Positive
    AccountabilityIndividualBoth individual and mutual
    SkillsRandom and variedComplementary
    • Self-managed workteam. (1) A workteam that operates without a manager and is responsible for a complete work process or segment; (2) A workteam usually of 10 to 15 people who take on responsibilities of their former supervisors.
    • Virtual team. A workteam that uses computer technology to link physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.
    • Problem-solving team. A workteam usually of 5 to 12 employees from the same department of functional area who meet often for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving work activities or solve specific problems such as quality, efficiency, and the work environment.
    • Cross-functional team. A workteam composed of employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task.
    • Cross-hierarchical team. A workteam composed of employees from different hierarchical levels.
  7. Team characteristic.
    • Reflexivity. A team characteristic of reflecting on and adjusting the master plan when necessary.
    • Mental model. Team members' knowledge and beliefs about how the work gets done by the team.
    • Team efficacy. A team's collective belief that they can succeed at their tasks.
    • Team identity. A team member's affinity for and sense of belongingness to his or her team.
  8. Job design. The way tasks are combined to form complete jobs or, in other words, the way the elements in a job are organized.
  9. Job involvement. The degree to which an employee identifies with her or his job, actively participates in it, and considers her or his job performance to be important self-worth.
    • Personality-job fit theory. A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover.
    • Person-organization fit. A theory that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values, and leave when there is not compatibility.
  10. Work specialization. (1) The degree to which tasks in an organization are subdivided into separate jobs; (2) The process of dividing work activities into separate job tasks.
    • Formalization. The degree to which jobs within an organization are standardized and/or the extent to which employee behavior is guided by rules and procedures.
    • Job depth. The degree of control employees have over their work.
    • Job score. The number of different tasks required in a job and the frequency with which those tasks are repeated.
  11. Occupation. The regular activity that a person undertakes in order to earn his or her livelihood. That activity can be a job, profession, or position that somebody works in. Entrepreneurs may refer their occupation as self-employed.

Roles

  1. Team role. A role that one plays while being a team member.
  2. Human factors ergonomist. A professional who designs objects, facilities, and environments to optimize human well-being and overall system performance, applying theory, principles, and data regarding the relationship between humans and respective technology. He or she investigates and analyzes characteristics of human behavior and performance as it relates to the use of technology.
  3. Contingent worker. A temporary, freelance, or contract worker whose employment is contingent on demand for her or his services.

Methods

  1. Workforce strategic alignment. A group of techniques used to align workforce arrangement models with business strategies. The alignment is usually based on assumptions that organic models tend to be more costly, but more innovative and agile, while mechanistic models tend to be more cost effective in stable operations, but less-to-not productive in projects.
    Organic modelMatrix modelMechanistic model
    Innovation strategy, growth strategy, startup pivotImitation strategyStability strategy, cost-minimization strategy
  2. Iterative work design. An established procedure for changing workgroup design and workforce development.
    • Job engagement. The investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance.
    • Job enlargement. The horizontal expansion of a job by increasing job scope.
    • Job enrichment. The vertical expansion of a job by adding planning and evaluating responsibilities.
    • Job rotation. The periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another.
  3. Group decision-making technique. An established procedure for making decisions by a group.
    • Nominal group technique. A group decision-making technique in which individual members meet face to face to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion.
    • Thumb vote. A quick pulse to get a sense of where the team are in terms of commitment, or agreement on a decision, etc. thumb up generally means agree, yes, or good, and thumb down disagree, no or bad; the analog version of this allows the thumb to be anywhere on the half circle to indicate differing degrees of agreeability.
  4. Delphi method. A method of group decision-making and forecasting that involves successively collating the judgments of experts.

Instruments

  1. Team effectiveness model. A model that suggests that team effectiveness depends on three groups of factors, which are context, composition, and functioning.
    • Team context. The circumstances that form the setting for a team including its adequate resources, leadership and structure, climate of trust, performance evaluation and reward systems.
    • Team composition. The characteristics of each of team memberss and the way of their assembly including abilities of members, personalities, allocating roles, diversity, size of teams, member flexibility, and member preferences.
    • Team functioning. Workteam's working or operating in a particular way including its common purpose, specific goals, team efficacy, conflict levels, and social loafing.
  2. Group decision tool. A tangible and/or software implement used to make decisions by a group.
    • Unanimity (or consensus). A group decision tool that makes a decision when every participant of the group agrees on a single action. An example of reaching unanimity is the Delphi technique wherein a selective group of experts answer questionnaires and give feedback on the responses of each round of gathering requirements.
    • Majority. A group decision tool that makes a decision when it is chosen by more than a half of the group participants. To avoid a tie, it is important to have an uneven number of participants during the group decision-making.
    • Plurality. A group decision tool that makes a decision when it is chosen by the largest block of the group. This is used when there are more than two options being nominated upon.
    • Dictatorship. A group decision tool that makes a decision when it is made only by one individual -- usually the leader -- for the entire group.
  3. Workforce arrangement model.
  4. Mechanistic model. A workforce arrangement model that is rigid and tightly controlled. Usually, those workforce arrangements that utilize this model are characterized by centralization and, as they outgrow startup stages, extensive departmentalization, high formalization, and a limited information network.
  5. Organic model. A workforce arrangement model that is highly adaptive and flexible. Usually, those workforce arrangements that utilize this model are flat, use cross-hierarchical and cross-functional formations, have low formalization, possesse a comprehensive information network, are characterized by decentralization, and a high degree of participative decision-making.
  6. Open workplace. Workplace with few physical barriers and enclosures.

Practices

Leadership Quarter is the successor lecture. In the enterprise envisioning series, the next lecture is Organizational Culture Quarter.

Materials

Recorded audio

Recorded video

Live sessions

Texts and graphics

See also