Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e by Scandura

Essentials of Organizational Behavior 2e by Scandura is the 2nd edition of the Essentials of Organizational Behavior: An Evidence-Based Approach textbook authored by Teresa (Terri) A. (Anne) Scandura, University of Miami, and published by SAGE Publications, Inc. in 2019.

• A-B-C analysis. Systematic planning in OB mod, examining antecedents, behaviors, and consequences.
• Absenteeism. Regularly staying away from work or school without good reason.
• Abusive supervision. hostile behavior toward followers that may include ridiculing, spreading rumors, taking credit for work done by followers, giving the "silent treatment," and/or withholding information.
• Achievement-oriented leadership. Challenging followers to perform at high levels, setting standards for excellence, showing confidence in followers' ability to reach goals.
• Action research. The process of problem specification and then interventions (i.e., actions) until the researcher understands how the intervention is affecting the organization.
• Active. Doing something about job dissatisfaction.
• Active listening. Way of listening that is "a creative, active, sensitive, accurate, empathic, nonjudgmental listening". (McCroskey, J. C.; 1977; Oral communication apprehension: A summary of recent theory and research. Human Communication Research)
• Adaptability. The ability to transfer the demands of the market into organizational actions.
• Additive task. A performance goal that can be met by adding up individual contributions.
• Adjourning. The team finalizes its work and disbands.
• Affect. One's attitude comprised of both emotions and moods.
• Affective. The emotional part of an attitude.
• Affective climate. Refers to the shared affective experience of a work group or team. (Cropanzano, R., & Dasborough, M. T.; 2015; Dynamic models of well-being; European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology)
• Affective commitment. Employee's emotional attachment to an organization.
• Affective conflict. Conflict that engenders strong emotions such as anger or disgust.
• Affective neuroscience. The study of the neural mechanisms of emotion.
• Affect spin. The ability to vary responses to emotional events by knowing which people are more reactive than others to both internal and external events.
• Agreeableness. A characteristic in which one is affable, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, and warm.
• All-channel network (or star network). More decentralized and allows a free flow of information among all group members.
• Alternative dispute resolution. Methods to resolve conflict that both parties agree to without involving litigation.
• Ambient impact. Collective deviant behavior that creates a hostile working environment.
• Applied social psychology. The study of how people interact in groups.
• Appreciative inquiry (AI). An OD intervention in which people reflect on peak experiences and visualize the future.
• Apprising. Persuading the target of influence that complying with the influencer will advance his or her career.
• Arbitration. Both parties agree in advance to accept a decision, and it is made by a neutral third party.
• Assimilation. Relinquishing cultural heritage and adopting the beliefs and behaviors of the new culture.
• Attitude. A psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor. (Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S.; 1993; The psychology of attitudes; New York, NY Harcourt; Brace Jovanovich College Publishers)
• Attributions. A person's attempt to assign a cause to a behavior or event they observe.
• Attribution theory. Proposes that "the attributions people make about events and behavior can be either internal or external". (Miner, J. B.; 2015; Attribution theory -- Managerial perceptions of the poor performing subordinate)
• Authentic leadership. Knowing oneself and behaving in a way that is consistent with what is intuitively right; this includes the four dimensions of self-awareness, relational transparency, internalized moral perspectives, and balanced processing.
• Autonomy. Ability to work alone without supervision.
• Availability bias. Readily available information that comes to a person's mind and affects a decision.
• Behavioral. An intention to act based upon the cognitions and affect experienced.
• Behavioral CQ. The ability to adjust to others' cultural practices.
• Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS). A vertical scale presented with specific examples of performance.
• Behavioral methods. Problem-solving behaviors.
• Belief updating. Initial information affects the conclusion one draws, and this conclusion then impacts later judgments.
• Best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA). An alternative that negotiators will accept if the negotiation reaches an impasse and they can't get their ideal outcome.
• Biculturals. People who have internalized more than one cultural profile. (Thomas, D. C., Brannen, M. Y., & Garcia, D.; 2010; Bicultural individuals and intercultural effectiveness; European Journal of Cross-Cultural Competence and Management)
• Boomers. Born between 1946 and 1964; called this due to the baby boom that occurred after World War II.
• Boundary spanners. Individuals in an organization who link the organization's internal networks and/or external constituents together.
• Bounded ethicality. An unconscious psychological process that hinders the quality of decision making.
• Bounded rationality. When decision makers have limits on their ability to assimilate large amounts of information.
• Brainstorming. Generating a large quantity of ideas in a face-to-face team meeting.
• Broaden-and-build model. A process by which emotions serve to both broaden employee experiences and then allow them to build better-functioning organizations.
• Buffering effect. Support during a stress episode that prevents stress.
• Bureaucratic control. When legitimate authority governs social interactions.
• Calculus-based trust (CBT). A form of trust based upon keeping records of what another person does for you and what you do for them.
• Career adaptability. Defined as "a psychosocial construct that denotes an individual's resources for coping with current and anticipated tasks, transitions, traumas in their occupational roles". (Savickas, M. L., & Porfeli, E. J.; 2012; Career adapt-abilities scale Construction, reliability, and measurement equivalence across 13 countries; Journal of Vocational Behavior)
• Career indecision. the difficulties preventing individuals from making a career decision. (Gati, I., Gadassi, R., Saka, N., Hadadi, Y., Ansenberg, N., Friedmann, R., & AsulinPeretz, L.; 2010; Emotional and personality-related aspects of career decision-making difficulties; Journal of Career Assessment)
• Case study. A description of a situation in an organization.
• Central tendency error. Giving ratings that center in the middle of a scale.
• Chain network. Gives a flow of information among members, although the people are at the end of the chain.
• Challenge-related stress and eustress. Good stress.
• Change uncertainty. Uncertainty due to strategic, structural, and/or job-related change.
• Changing. Represents movement toward a new desired state.
• Circle network. Each person can communicate with two others located adjacent to them.
• Clan control. Occurs when shared values and beliefs govern how people interact socially.
• Climcult. Culture and climate work together to influence how people experience their work environment.
• Coalition tactics. Seek the aid or support others.
• Coding. Linking the information you need to remember to something familiar and easily retrievable.
• Coercive power. The ability to punish.
• Cognitive. A statement of belief about something.
• Cognitive CQ. Refers to self-awareness and the ability to detect cultural patterns.
• Cognitive dissonance. Incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between attitudes and behavior.
• Cognitive evaluation theory. Another term for self-determination theory.
• Cognitive methods. Managing thoughts and emotions.
• Cohesion. Team spirit experienced in high-performing teams.
• Collaboration. Offer to provide assistance or resources to the person being asked to do something.
• Collective effort. A work project that reflects the contributions of everyone on the team.
• Collectivism. Group orientation.
• Combining tasks. Creating natural work units by putting tasks together to create a more challenging and complex work assignment.
• Commitment. Employees enthusiastically carry out the program.
• Commitment to change. Employees support change and help the organization implement it.
• Communication apprehension (CA). an individual's level of fear or anxiety with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons. (McCroskey, J. C.; 1977; Oral communication apprehension; Human Communication Research)
• Compassion. Noticing, feeling, and understanding the suffering of a follower.
• Competence. a cluster of related knowledge, skills and attitudes that affects a major part of one's job (a role or responsibility), that correlates with performance on the job, that can be measured against well-accepted standards, and that can be improved via training and development. (Parry, S. B.; 1996; The quest for competencies; Training)
• Complementary linkage. One individual identifies with another person, and this identification causes the emotions to spread, as in "misery loves company".
• Compliance. Employees simply go along with the change but secretly hope that it is a program that will come to an end soon.
• Conciliation. Calling in a neutral third party to attempt to resolve the conflict.
• Conflict. the process that begins when one party perceives that the other has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that he or she cares about. (Thomas, K. W.; 1992; Conflict and negotiation processes in organizations; Palo Alto, CA; Consulting Psychologists Press)
• Conscientiousness. Being organized, systematic, punctual, achievement oriented, and dependable.
• Consensus. Discussing ideas and deferring a final decision until everyone can say they have been heard and will support the final decision.
• Consideration. The degree to which the leader shows trust, respect, and sensitivity to employees' feelings.
• Consistency. Defining values and subsystems that are the basis of a strong culture.
• Constructive. A positive response to job dissatisfaction.
• Consultation. Invites the person to be involved with a proposed idea, and may be used in any direction as well.
• Consultative. Asking for input from team members one-on-one or as a group and then making the final decision.
• Contingency contract. Contracts that bridge concerns about future events that are brought up during the negotiation, and they become part of the agreement.
• Continuance commitment. Degree to which an employee is aware of the costs of leaving the organization.
• Contrast effect. Evaluation of a characteristic of an object or person affected by comparisons with other objects or people ranking higher or lower on the characteristic.
• Convergent linkage. Occurs when individuals share the interpretations of emotional events.
• Core self-evaluation (CSE). fundamental premises that individuals hold about themselves and their functioning in the world. (Judge, T. A., Erez, A., & Bono, J. E.; 1998; The power of being positive; Human Performance)
• Correlational field study. Data are gathered by having organizational members complete survey forms, and then data are analyzed using statistical methods.
• Counterdependent. Employees who resent authority and being told what to do.
• Creativity. production of a novel and appropriate response, product, or solution to an open-ended task. (Amabile, T. M.; 2012; Componential theory of creativity; Cambridge, MA; Harvard Business School)
• Critical thinking. The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment.
• Cross-cultural communication. Compares one culture to another.
• Crossover stress effect. A phenomenon that occurs when employees carry stress home with them from the workplace, which affects family interactions.
• Cultural intelligence (CQ). An individual's capabilities to function and manage effectively in culturally diverse settings.
• Cultural looseness. Associated with social disorganization, deviance, innovation, and openness to change.
• Culturally endorsed implicit leadership theory (CLT). A theory that identifies leadership behaviors perceived as effective and ineffective across cultures.
• Cultural retooling. The psychological process of adaptation to another culture.
• Cultural tightness. Associated with order and efficiency, conformity, and low rates of change.
• Cultural tightness-looseness. The strength of social norms and the level of sanctioning within societies.
• Culture shock. The distress experienced by a traveler from the loss of familiar patterns of social interaction.
• Cyberslacking. Using the Internet for personal reasons during working hours.
• Dark Triad. comprised of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. (Paulhus, D. L., & Williams, K.; 2002; The Dark Triad of personality; Journal of Research in Personality)
• Deep acting. When a desired emotional expression is achieved by changing one's underlying felt emotion.
• Deep-level diversity. differences among members' attitudes, beliefs, and values. (Harrison, D. A., Price, K. H., & Bell, M. P.; 1998; Beyond relational demography; Academy of Management Journal)
• Delegating. Allowing a team (or individual) to make a final decision.
• Demands-abilities fit (DA fit). The compatibility between the employee's knowledge, skills, and abilities, and the demands of the job. In other words, the job characteristics are neither too easy nor too difficult for the abilities of the employee; they match.
• Destructive. A negative response to job dissatisfaction.
• Determinism. The belief that "people should not try to change the paths their lives are destined to take".
• Deviant behavior. Aggression, bullying, harassment, incivility and social undermining. (Robinson, S. L., Wang, W., & Kiewitz, C.; 2014; Coworkers behaving badly; Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior)
• Direct effects. An employee is the target of a coworker's deviant act.
• Directive leadership. Giving followers specific instructions about their tasks, providing deadlines, setting standards for performance, and explaining rules.
• Distributive justice. Perceived fairness of how rewards are distributed.
• Disturbance handler. One who resolves conflict and chooses strategic alternatives.
• Divergent linkage. Occurs when interpretations of emotional events differ.
• Downward communication. The process by which employees communicate with others who are lower in the organizational hierarchy.
• E-harassment. E-mail or other electronic communication directed at a specific person that causes substantial emotional distress and serves no legitimate purpose.
• Elaborative interrogation. People are asked to generate their own explanations of factual statements presented to them.
• Emotional contagion. The negative mood of one employee spreads to others in their group.
• Emotional dissonance. The result of the difference between the organizationally expected emotions and an employee's inner or "real" emotions. (Yagil, D.; 2012; The mediating role of engagement and burnout in the relationship between employees' emotion regulation strategies and customer outcomes; European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology)
• Emotional division of labor (EDOL). Defined as any explicit or implicit division of roles in which individuals vary in their requirement to use emotional abilities. (Elfenbein, H. A.; 2016; Emotional division-of-labor; Research in Organizational Behavior)
• Emotional intelligence (EI). Ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions. (Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D.; 1989; Emotional intelligence; Imagination, Cognition and Personality)
• Emotional labor. The effort required to effectively manage emotions to be successful on the job.
• Emotion regulation. Ability to manage emotion in self and others (e.g., detaching from fear states that interfere with one's functioning).
• Emotions. Brief but intense feelings triggered by specific events that disrupt a person's thinking.
• Employability. Attribution employers make about the probability that job candidates will make positive contributions to their organizations. (Hogan, R., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Kaiser, R. B.; 2013; Employability and career success; Industrial and Organizational Psychology)
• Employee assistance program (EAP). Programs "designed to help employees deal with problems that seriously affect job performance". (Colantonio, A.; 1989; Assessing the effects of employee assistance programs; Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine)
• Employee engagement. The investments of an individual's complete self into a role. (Rich, B. L., Lepine, J. A., & Crawford, E. R.; 2010; Job engagement Antecedents and effects on job performance. Academy of Management Journal)
• Employee well-being. Lack of emotional exhaustion, psychosomatic health complaints, and physical health symptoms.
• Enacted values. Values that are acted out.
• Engineers. This group focuses on designing systems to support the work of operations, such as employees who design a manufacturing facility.
• Entrepreneur. One who looks for new ideas and opportunities.
• Entry. When a new member starts work.
• Equity theory. A theory that looks at how people compare their inputs to their outcomes.
• Escalation of commitment. When individuals continue a failing course of action after receiving feedback that shows it isn't working.
• Espoused values. Values that are stated.
• Ethical climate. The moral atmosphere of the work environment and the level of ethics practiced within an organization.
• Ethical leadership. Leadership that promotes honesty and acts based on moral values and beliefs.
• Ethics of care. A normative ethical theory that holds interpersonal relationships and care or benevolence as a virtue central to moral action.
• Evidence-based approach. Integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research.
• Evidence-based management (EBM). The ability to translate research to practice.
• Exchange. Persuasion based on a quid pro quo.
• Executives. Employees who have worked their way up organizational career ladders and are financially responsible to their board of directors and shareholders.
• Exemplification. When people self-sacrifice or go above and beyond the call of duty in order to gain the attribution of dedication from observers.
• Expanding pie. Enlarging the pool of resources so that a negotiation can end in a "win-win" agreement where both feel that they got the best possible outcome.
• Experimental. Rigorous studies conducted in controlled settings.
• Expert power. The ability to influence others due to knowledge or a special skill set or expertise.
• External attribution. People believe that a person's behavior is due to situational factors.
• External communication. Information that is shared with the public through marketing and public relations efforts.
• Extraversion. A trait of a person who is outgoing, talkative, and sociable as well as enjoys social situations.
• Extrinsic motivation. Involves the performance → outcome instrumentality between the task and a tangible reward.
• Extrinsics in service of intrinsics. Refers to how extrinsic rewards may support an employee's sense of competence if they don't undermine autonomy.
• Facilitation. When a leader intervenes to resolve a conflict.
• Facilitator. One who helps the team make a decision by asking questions and reflecting statements but not influencing the final decision.
• Family-to-work conflict. Family problems cross over to work.
• Feedback. Knowledge of results of a person's efforts.
• Feedback seeking. An individual's general level of proactive activity with respect to obtaining feedback from the work environment.
• Fight-or-flight response. The result of human evolution in which the response was needed to attack predators or run away from them.
• Five-stage model. Forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.
• Fixed. A specified amount of time or number of responses.
• Fixed pie. Only a limited amount of goods are divided, and the goal is to get the largest share.
• Flexible job search behavior (FJSB). Flexibility with respect to pay/hierarchical level, skill use, and commuting time.
• Flexible working hours. hours may be formal (i.e., allowing employees to arrive later to work and stay later) or informal (i.e., a supervisor being flexible regarding an employee's need to pick up children from school).
• Flow. When a person experiences a challenging opportunity aligned with their skills.
• Force field analysis. Analyzing the forces for and against a change.
• Forming. The first stage of team development when the team members meet for the first time.
• Framing. Whether questions are presented as gains or losses.
• Fundamental attribution error. Tendency to attribute other people's behavior to internal factors such as character traits or abilities, but when explaining one's own behavior, people tend to attribute the cause to the situation.
• Gain-sharing plans. Compensation is tied to unit-level performance, where revenue increases (or cost savings) are shared with employees.
• Galatea effect. When an individual sets high expectations for himself or herself and then performs to these expectations.
• Generation Xers, or gen Xers. Born between 1965 and 1980; sometimes referred to as the "baby busters" or "latchkey kids".
• Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness project (GLOBE project). A large-scale research program that sought to understand differences in leader behaviors and relationships with relevant organizational outcomes worldwide.
• Global mind-set. A set of individual attributes that enhance a manager's ability to influence others who are different from them.
• Global mobility. Occurs when individuals, and often their families, are relocated from one country to another by an employer, generally from a familiar situation (a home country) to a novel one (a host country) for a fixed period of time.
• Golem effect. When an individual sets low expectations for himself or herself and then performs to these expectations.
• Grapevine. The circulation of unofficial information in an organization.
• Gratitude. A generalized tendency to recognize and respond with grateful emotion to the roles of other people's benevolence in the positive experiences and outcomes that one obtains. (McCullough, M. E., Emmons, R. A., & Tsang, J. A.; 2002; The grateful disposition; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology)
• Groupthink. The conformity-seeking tendency of a group.
• Growth need strength. Refers to a person's need to learn new things, grow, and develop from working.
• Halo error. Occurs when the rater's overall positive impression or evaluation strongly influences ratings of specific attributes.
• Hawthorne effect. Positive responses in attitudes and performance when researchers pay attention to a particular group of workers.
• Heuristic. Decision rules.
• High-context cultures. Cultures that rely heavily on situational cues for meaning when perceiving and communicating with others.
• Hindrance-related stress. Excessive or undesirable constraints that interfere with an individual's ability to achieve goals, creating "negative stress".
• Hindsight bias, or I-knew-it-all-along effect. The tendency for individuals with outcome knowledge (hindsight) to claim they would have estimated a probability of occurrence for the reported outcome that is higher than they would have estimated in foresight (without the outcome information).
• Horizontal. Adding different tasks at the same level.
• Horns error. Occurs when the rater's overall negative impression or evaluation strongly influences ratings of specific attributes.
• Humble leadership. A style of leadership where leaders tend to view themselves more objectively, others more appreciatively, and new information or ideas more openly.
• Hygienes. Things like supervision, pay, company policies, and the working conditions.
• Idea evaluation. Discussing the strengths and weaknesses of ideas.
• Idea generation. Creating new ideas.
• Identification-based trust (IBT). Form of trust characterized by the leader and follower sharing the same goals and objectives.
• Imaging. Linking verbal information to visual images.
• Implicit leadership schemas. Traits and characteristics a person thinks are linked to being a leader.
• Implicit leadership theory (ILT). Examines how attributions about leadership affect follower perceptions of who you are in the role of leader.
• Impression management. Set of behaviors that people use to protect their self-image or change the way they are seen by others (or both).
• Indirect effects. An employee is affected by learning of another coworker's deviant behaviors.
• Individual level. The most basic level.
• Individual rights. Rights that protect an individual within an organization and guide ethical decision making.
• Industry level. The aggregate of productive enterprises in a particular field, often named after its principal product or service (for example, the health care industry).
• Influence. The exercise of power to change the behavior, attitudes, and/or values of an individual or group.
• Informational justice. Refers to the perceived fairness of the communications made by leaders during a process.
• Ingratiation. Compliment-giving or acting deferential.
• In-group members. Group members who perform to the specifications in their job descriptions and go above and beyond and take on extra work.
• Initiating structure. Defining tasks for employees and focusing on goals.
• Innovation. The generation, acceptance, and implementation of new ideas, processes, products, or services.
• Inspirational appeals. An appeal made to followers' values and ideals or seeks to arouse the target person's emotions to gain commitment for a request or proposal.
• Instrumental support. Focuses on problem solving during a stress episode.
• Integration. Maintaining one's cultural heritage and adopting a new cultural identity.
• Integrative acculturation. Becoming bicultural.
• Integrative bargaining. Parties do not see the process as a zero-sum game, and they believe that an agreement can be reached that satisfies all concerns.
• Integrative complexity. The degree to which a person accepts the reasonableness of different cultural perspectives on how to live, both at the micro interpersonal level and at more macro organizational-societal levels and, consequently, is motivated to develop integrative schemas that specify when to activate different worldviews and/or how to blend them together into a coherent holistic mental representation. (Tadmor, C. T., & Tetlock, P. E.; 2006; Biculturalism; Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology)
• Intercultural communication. Focuses on the behavior of two individuals' communication patterns.
• Interdependent. Employees who depend on one another to get things done in the group and organization.
• Internal attribution. People infer that an event or a person's behavior is due to his or her own character traits or abilities.
• Internal communication. The communications transactions between individuals and/or groups at various levels and in different areas of specialization that is intended to design and redesign organizations, to implement designs, and to co-ordinate day-to-day activities. (Frank, A., & Brownell, J.; 1989; Organizational communication and behavior; Orlando, FL Holt, Rinehart & Winston)
• Interpersonal justice. Refers to how employees are treated by their leaders, including respect and propriety.
• Interval. Provision of reinforcement based on time.
• Intimidation. Where people signal their power or potential to punish in order to be seen as dangerous by observers.
• Intrinsic motivation. When someone works on a task because they find it interesting and gains satisfaction from the task itself.
• Involvement. Building human capability, ownership, and responsibility.
• Job burnout. A prolonged response to chronic stressors on the job. (Maslach, C.; 1998; A multidimensional theory of burnout; Oxford, England; Oxford University Press)
• Job control. The degree to which an individual perceives that s/he can control where, when, and how s/he works. (Kossek, E. E., Lautsch, B. A., & Eaton, S. C.; 2006; Telecommuting, control, and boundary management; Journal of Vocational Behavior)
• Job crafting. Extent to which individuals can demonstrate initiative in designing their own work.
• Job enrichment. Redesigning jobs so that they are more challenging to the employee and have less repetitive work.
• Job involvement. how much an employee identifies with his or her job and views his or her performance at work as an essential part of his or her self-esteem.
• Job performance. Performance can be actual performance as collected in organizational records (e.g., the number of forms correctly processed in an insurance company) or it may be rated by supervisors and/or peers.
• Job rotation. Involves cross-training or allowing workers to do different jobs.
• Job satisfaction. how content an individual is with his or her job, whether or not they like the job or aspects of it, such as the nature of work or supervision.
• Job sharing. Two part-time employees jointly do a full-time job, sharing the remuneration.
• Justice. Emphasizes fair treatment and the right to pursue happiness.
• Just-world hypothesis. Need to believe that the world is fair and that people get what they deserve.
• Knowledge-based trust (KBT). Trust grounded in experience of how predictable the other person is.
• Labor relations. The study and practice of managing unionized employment situations.
• Language. Jargon or acronyms that may be unique to an organization and represent the organizational culture and how it is transmitted to newcomers.
• Lateral communication. The process by which employees communicate with others at the same level in the organizational hierarchy.
• Law of effect. Past actions that led to positive outcomes tend to be repeated, whereas past actions that led to negative outcomes will diminish.
• Law of reciprocity. Universal belief that if someone does something for you, they should be paid back.
• Leader-member exchange (LMX). The quality of the working relationship that is developed with each follower.
• Leadership climate. Effective behaviors, attitudes, and environmental conditions created by a leader that enhance team performance and increase empowerment.
• Learning goal orientation (LGO). When individuals want to learn new things at work and see themselves as adaptable.
• Legitimate power. The ability to make a request and get a response due to the nature of the roles between two people.
• Legitimating tactics. The agent seeks to establish the legitimacy of a request or to verify authority to make it by referring to rules, policies, contracts, or precedent.
• Low-context cultures. Cultures in which written and spoken words carry the burden of shared meanings.
• Machiavellianism. Refers to a person who believes that the "ends justify the means" mainly for university students, based on the pressures and obligations from each domain.
• Management by objectives (MBO). A performance appraisal program where leaders meet with their direct reports and set specific performance objectives jointly.
• Marginalization. Rejecting both the old and new culture.
• Market control. Exists when prices determine how social interactions between people are formed.
• Mediation. When a third-party neutral person is called in to resolve a conflict.
• Mentoring. Intense developmental relationship whereby advice, counseling, and developmental opportunities are provided to a protégé by a mentor, which, in turn, shapes the protégé's career experiences.
• Meta-analysis. A quantitative literature review on a topic.
• Metacognitive CQ. The cognitive processing necessary to recognize and understand expectations appropriate for different cultural situations.
• Metamorphosis. A person transforms from a new employee to an established contributor who is valued and trusted by other members of the organization.
• Millennials. Born between 1981 and 1999; look for flexibility and choice.
• Mindfulness. A state of open attention on what is happening in the present without thinking about the past or worrying about the future.
• Minnesota twin studies. Conducted from 1979 to 1999, which followed identical and fraternal twins who were separated at an early age.
• Mission. Defining the meaningful, long-term direction for the organization.
• Mixed methods research. Research that combines qualitative (e.g., interviews) and quantitative (e.g., surveys) in a single study.
• Moods. General feeling states that are not related to something that happens to a person but are not intense enough to interrupt regular thought patterns or work.
• Moral outrage. Severe reaction to perceived injustice.
• Motivational CQ. Refers to persistence and goal setting for cross-cultural interactions.
• Motivation to lead (MTL). Defined as "an individual differences construct that affects a leader's or leader-to-be's decisions to assume leadership training, roles, and responsibilities and that affect his or her intensity of effort at leading and persistence as a leader". (Chan, K. Y., & Drasgow, F.; 2001; Toward a theory of individual differences and leadership; Journal of Applied Psychology)
• Motivation-work cycle match. Understanding that innovation occurs in phases, and intrinsic motivation may be more important during the idea-generation phase.
• Motivator-hygiene theory. Another term for the Herzberg two-factor theory.
• Motivators. Factors that satisfy workers when they think about their job, such as advancement, recognition, and achievement.
• Narcissism. The expression of grandiosity, entitlement, dominance, and superiority. (Spain, S. M., Harms, P., & LeBreton, J. M.; 2014; The dark side of personality at work; Journal of Organizational Behavior)
• Need for achievement (nAch). The drive to succeed at high levels.
• Need for affiliation (nAff). The need for close personal relationships.
• Need for power (nPow). The need to influence others to do what you want.
• Needs-supplies fit (NS fit). Addresses whether the job fulfills the employee's needs for interesting work and a sense of meaning in their work.
• Negative state affect. The experience of negative emotions and poor self-concept. Negative affectivity subsumes a variety of negative emotions, including anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness.
• Negotiation. Discussion aimed at reaching an agreement.
• Negotiator. One who protects the interests of the business by interacting within teams, departments, and the organization.
• Netiquette. E-mail etiquette.
• Neuroticism. Represents a tendency to be anxious or moody.
• Noise. Any communication barrier that may affect how a person interprets a message.
• Nominal group technique (NGT). Group meets face-to-face, but discussion is more restricted than in brainstorming or consensus decision making.
• Nonverbal communication. The sending and receiving of thoughts and feelings via nonverbal behavior. (Ambady, N., & Weisbuch, M.; 2010; Nonverbal behavior; Hoboken, NJ; Wiley)
• Normative commitment. Moral obligation to stay with the organization -- because it is the right thing to do.
• Normative decision-making model. Shows that team decisions fall on a continuum ranging from leaders making the decision themselves to delegating the decision to the team.
• Norming. A stage of team development where members of the team form a cohesive unit and close relationships among team members develop.
• Observational learning. Learning from watching others.
• Ombudsperson. A person who hears grievances on an informal basis and attempts to resolve them.
• Onboarding. The process of welcoming and orienting new organizational members to facilitate their adjustment to the organization, its culture, and its practices.
• Openness. A person's willingness to embrace new ideas and new situations.
• Operant conditioning. A theory that proposes that behavior is a function of consequences.
• Operators. The line managers and employees who are involved in making products, delivering services, and interacting with customers directly.
• Organizational anticipatory socialization. The process an individual goes through as they attempt to find an organization to join.
• Organizational behavior (OB). The study of individuals and their attitudes and behaviors at work.
• Organizational behavior modification (OB mod). Programs that apply reinforcement theory in organizations.
• Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Considered to be performance beyond the expectations of a person's job description -- extra-role performance.
• Organizational climate. Level of agreement in perceptions about the organization and work environment among employees.
• Organizational commitment. An employee's desire to remain a member of an organization.
• Organizational communication. The process by which individuals stimulate meaning in the minds of other individuals by means of verbal or nonverbal messages in the context of a formal organization. (Richmond, V. P., McCroskey, J. C., & McCroskey, L. L.; 2005; Organizational communication for survival; New York, NY; Allyn & Bacon)
• Organizational culture. The pattern of basic assumptions, that a given group has invented, discovered, or developed in learning to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, and that have worked well enough to be considered valid, and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. (Schein, E. H.; 1984; Coming to a new awareness of organizational culture; Sloan Management Review)
• Organizational development (OD). A collection of social psychology methods employed to improve organizational effectiveness and employee well-being.
• Organizational justice. Overall perception of what is fair in an organization.
• Organizational level. An entire entity structured and managed to pursue collective goals with a structure that determines relationships between the different activities and the members.
• Organizational neuroscience. Examines the potential of brain science to enhance prediction of OB.
• Organizational politics. Unsanctioned influence attempts that seek to promote self-interest at the expense of organizational goals.
• Organizational socialization. Defined as the process an organization utilizes to ensure that new members acquire necessary attitudes, behaviors, knowledge, and skills to become productive organizational members. (Wanberg, C. R.; 2012; Facilitating organizational socialization; New York, NY Oxford University Press)
• Organizational stress. Negative environmental factors or stressors associated with a particular job.
• Out-group members. Group members who perform to the specifications in their job descriptions but don't go above and beyond and don't take on extra work.
• Overconfidence bias. hubris, or inflated confidence in how accurate a person's knowledge or estimates are.
• Overdependent. Employees who are compliant and give in all of the time.
• Overpayment inequity. The perception that a person's outcomes are greater than they deserve compared to another person's outcomes, given their inputs.
• Participative leadership. Allowing followers to have a voice in decisions that affect them, sharing information, inviting followers' ideas and opinions.
• Passive. Not responding to job dissatisfaction.
• Path-goal theory (PGT). Leaders motivate followers to accomplish goals by establishing the paths to the goals. (House, R. J.; 1971; A path-goal theory of leadership effectiveness; Administrative Science Quarterly) Specifically, leaders increase the quality and number of payoffs from reaching goals and then make the path to the goals clear by removing obstacles. (House, R. J., & Mitchell, T. R.; 1974; Path-goal theory of leadership; Journal of Contemporary Business)
• Pay dispersion. How pay rates differ across individuals.
• Pay inequity. Perceived unfairness of how pay is distributed.
• Peer review. A panel of a grievant's peers that hears the concern and attempts to resolve it.
• Perceived organizational support (POS). Employees pay attention to whether the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being. (Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D.; 1986; Perceived organizational support; Journal of Applied Psychology)
• Perception. Process through which people organize and interpret sensory information to give meaning to their world.
• Perceptions of organizational politics (POP). A person's perception of others' behavior strategically designed to maximize short-term or long-term self-interest.
• Perceptual errors. Flaws in perception due to mental shortcuts people make to simplify information that is processed.
• Performing. The team meets its goals and completes tasks.
• Personal appeals. Asking someone to carry out a request or support a proposal out of friendship or asking for a personal favor before saying what it is.
• Personality. Regularities in feeling, thought and action that are characteristic of an individual. (Snyder, M., & Cantor, N.; 1998; Understanding personality and social behavior; New York, NY McGraw-Hill)
• Personality-job fit theory. Occurs when job characteristics are aligned with employees' personality, motivations, and abilities.
• Personal power. Influence over others, the source of which resides in the person instead of being vested by the position he or she holds.
• Person-environment fit (PE fit). The degree of congruence between the person and the work situation.
• Person-job fit (PJ fit). Occurs when job characteristics are aligned with employees' personalities, motivations, and abilities.
• Person-organization fit (PO fit). The match between a person's individual values and those of the organization they work for.
• Perspective taking. The ability to see things from another person's perspective that holds a view that conflicts with your own.
• Political skill. Ability to effectively understand others at work and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one's personal and/or organizational objectives.
• Position power. Authority and influence bestowed by a position or office on whoever is occupying it.
• Positive state affect. The extent to which an individual subjectively experiences positive moods such as joy, interest, and alertness.
• Power. The potential of one person (or group) to influence another person or group.
• Power distance. Deference to authority.
• Preentry. Occurs from the time someone is offered the job to when they actually start working.
• Pressure tactics. Threats; relate to coercion.
• Prevention-focused. A tendency to aim for getting to an end because of a fear of an undesirable alternative.
• Preventive stress management. A set of methods that promote health at the workplace and avoid distress.
• Primacy effect. Perseverance of beliefs based upon what is observed first.
• Proactive. Actively attempting to make alterations to the workplace and its practices.
• Proactive influence tactics. Positive and negative ways of influencing others.
• Procedural justice. Perception of how fair the process was in making decisions that affect employees.
• Process conflict. People disagree on what course of action to pursue or the best way to operate even after a decision has been made.
• Process consultation. A consultant with OD expertise assists in a helping mode.
• Profit-sharing plans. Employee bonuses are based upon reaching a financial target such as return on assets or net income.
• Promotion-focused. A need for achievement, focus on advancement, and set learning goals.
• Prosocial motivation. New concept of motivation that assesses the degree to which employees behave in a way that benefits society as a whole.
• Prospect theory. A perspective that highlights the importance of uncertainty and risk to the decision-making process.
• Psychological capital (PsyCap). The value of individual differences, including efficacy, optimism, hope, and resiliency.
• Psychological empowerment. Intrinsic task motivation manifested in a set of four cognitions reflecting an individual's orientation to his or her work role: competence, impact, meaning, and self-determination. (Spreitzer, G. M.; 1995; Psychological empowerment in the workplace Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal)
• Psychological safety. Shared belief that the team is safe for interpersonal risk taking. Being able to show and employ one's self without fear of negative consequences of self-image, status, or career..
• Psychopathy. Impulsivity and thrill seeking combined with low empathy and anxiety. (Hare, R. D.; 1985; Comparison of procedures for the assessment of psychopathy; Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology)
• Punctuated equilibrium. Transition between an early phase of inactivity followed by a second phase of significant acceleration toward task completion.
• Pygmalion effect. Perceptions of performance expectations play a significant role in improving performance.
• Qualitative research. Interviewing people in organizations and gathering detailed information through transcriptions of interviews.
• Quantitative research. Collecting data through organizational surveys containing measures of OB concepts.
• Ratio. Provision of reinforcement is based on the number of responses (attempts).
• Rational persuasion. Use of logic and facts, a tactic commonly employed by leaders.
• Reactive. When an organization makes changes in its practices after some threat or opportunity has already occurred.
• Recency effect. When people remember the most recently presented items or experiences.
• Referent power. The ability to influence based upon others' identification with the individual and followers' desire to emulate them.
• Refreezing. Reinforcing and restructuring the changes.
• Regulatory focus theory (RFT). An alternative approach to understanding how individuals strive to meet their goals.
• Rehearsal. Repetition of information.
• Reinforcement theory. Another term for operant conditioning.
• Reinforcers. Something that increases or decreases behavior.
• Relationship conflict. Personality clashes or differences in values.
• Remote working. Also known as telecommuting, or the ability to work from home -- or anywhere.
• Repatriation. The transition when the expatriate has completed the international assignment and returns home.
• Resistance. Employees fight the change and try to undermine it.
• Resource allocator. One who decides how to prioritize the direction of resources.
• Restructuring and downsizing. Reorganization that includes laying off employees.
• Reverse culture shock. The distress experienced by an expatriate when they assimilate to a foreign culture and have trouble adjusting to their native culture when they return home.
• Reward power. The ability to provide incentives or other things valued.
• Risk taking. A personality trait defined as "any purposive activity that entails novelty or danger sufficient to create anxiety in most people. Risk taking can be either physical or social, or a combination of the two". (Levenson, M. R.; 1990; Risk taking and personality; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology)
• Rituals. A form of social action in which a group's values and identity are publicly demonstrated or enacted in a stylized manner, within the context of a specific occasion or event. (Islam, G., & Zyphur, M. J.; 2009; Rituals in organizations; Group & Organization Management)
• Role ambiguity. A lack of specificity or predictability about what a person's role is.
• Role conflict. Occurs when there are incompatible demands regarding what a person's role is.
• Role overload. Role-related stress caused by too much work, time pressure, and deadlines.
• Romance of leadership. The tendency to view leadership as the most important factor for the success or failure of organizations; whereas the influence of other factors is de-emphasized, the influence of leadership is overemphasized.
• Sabbaticals. A leave taken from work to "recharge one's batteries" or take care of family responsibilities.
• Satisfice. Making a decision that is satisfactory but perhaps not optimal.
• Schedules of reinforcement. Various ways in which reinforcers can be administered.
• Self-actualization. The drive to meet our fullest capacity (e.g., growth and feeling fulfilled as a person).
• Self-awareness. Seeks feedback to improve interactions with others.
• Self-determination. A person's needs for autonomy and competence.
• Self-efficacy. An individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute the behaviors necessary to produce specific performance levels.
• Self-managed work team (SMWT). A team where there is typically no designated leader.
• Self-monitoring. Defined as "self-observation and self-control guided by situational cues to social appropriateness". (Snyder, M.; 1974; Self-monitoring of expressive behavior; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology)
• Self-promotion. Individuals point out their abilities or accomplishments in order to be seen as competent by observers.
• Self-serving bias. When a person attributes successes to internal factors and failures to situational factors.
• Sense of meaning. how much work goals align with an employee's personal standards (i.e., how well the work "fits" the employee's values).
• Separation. Maintaining only the heritage culture without intergroup relations.
• Servant leadership. Going beyond one's self-interest to help followers grow and to promote their wellbeing.
• Shannon-Weaver model of communication. Framework describing the communication process including the sender, encoding, channel, noise, receiver, and decoding of a message.
• Social identity. A way to explain how people view their own place in society through membership in various groups.
• Social learning theory. Extends operant conditioning to consider the fact that people can learn from watching other people succeed or fail.
• Social loafing. The reduction in motivation and effort when individuals work collectively compared with when they work individually or coactively.
• Social pressure. Influence from peers that may strengthen the relationship of an attitude toward behavior.
• Social support. help that people receive when they experience job demands.
• Solution implementation. Creating options in the form of actions that get results and gain acceptance.
• State affect. Feelings experienced in the short term and fluctuate over time.
• State-like. Characteristics that are relatively changeable and can be developed through awareness and/or training.
• Stereotypes. Judging a person based on their membership in a group.
• Stock options. A variation of profit sharing where employees are given stock options as part of their compensation package.
• Stories. Convey shared meanings and values representing the organizational culture and guide behavior. (Weick, K.; 1995; Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA; Sage)
• Storming. A stage of team development where conflicts emerge regarding the goals and contributions of team members; and there may be challenges to the leader.
• Stressors. Demands.
• Substantive conflict. Occurs because people have different opinions on important issues in the organization that affect them.
• Sunk costs fallacy. A person has already invested in this course of action and does not recognize what they invested initially is sunk (or gone).
• Supplication. Where individuals advertise their weaknesses or shortcomings in order to elicit an attribution of being needy from observers. (Jones, E. E., & Pittman, T. S.; 1982; Toward a general theory of strategic self-presentation; Hillsdale, NJ; Erlbaum)
• Supportive leadership. Showing consideration, being friendly and approachable, and paying attention to the well-being of followers.
• Surface acting. Producing a desired outward emotional expression without modifying the underlying emotions. (Scott, B. A., & Barnes, C. M.; 2011; A multilevel field investigation of emotional labor, affect, work withdrawal, and gender; Academy of Management Journal)
• Surface-level diversity. Differences among group members in overt, biological characteristics that are typically reflected in physical features. (Harrison, D. A., Price, K. H., & Bell, M. P.; 1998; Beyond relational demography; Academy of Management Journal)
• Survey feedback. Data are collected from employees regarding their attitudes toward work, reports are created, and shared with the organization.
• Sustainability. Values, governance, transparency, and ethics, as well as such goals as diversity, social responsibility, supporting human and employee rights, protecting the environment, and contributing to the community.
• Symbols. The sharing of knowledge through access and exposure to images, diagrams, or objects that represent or illustrate a culture value or an idea.
• Synergy. The team can produce something beyond the sum of individual member contributions.
• Task conflict. Disagreements about resource allocation, policies, or even interpretation of data.
• Team affect. Team atmosphere.
• Team building. Group activities that involve a great deal of interaction among team members to increase trust.
• Team charter. A document developed by a team that clarifies team direction and establishes ground rules.
• Team level. The group level of analysis.
• Team mental models (TMMs). Shared understandings within teams.
• Team norms. Informal and interpersonal rules that team members are expected to follow.
• Team performance curve. Recognizes that team performance over the course of the life of the team is not always linear and performance does not always increase over time.
• Team viability. Collective sense of belonging similar to team cohesion.
• Theory X. Leaders assume that people are basically lazy, don't like to work, and avoid responsibility.
• Theory Y. Leaders assume that people are internally motivated, like to work, and will accept responsibility.
• Third culture. the construction of a mutually beneficial interactive environment in which individuals from two different cultures can function in a way beneficial to all involved. (Casrnir, F. L.; 1999; Foundations for the study of intercultural communication based on a third-culture building model; International Journal of Intercultural Relations)
• Three "lines" of power. Lines of supply, information, and support.
• 360-degree performance appraisal. The input from a number of sources included to provide a more comprehensive view of an employee's performance.
• Top management support. Executive-level managers review plans, follow up on results, and facilitate change efforts.
• Toxic workplaces. Marked by significant drama and infighting, where personal battles often harm productivity.
• Traditionalists. Born between 1900 and 1945 and are retiring or have passed on.
• Trait affect. Stable individual differences.
• Trait approach. It is believed that leaders are born with the talent and abilities for leadership.
• Trait-like. Personality characteristics that are relatively stable over time.
• Transactional leadership. Leadership behaviors that motivate followers through rewards and corrective actions.
• Transformational leadership. Leadership behaviors that mobilize extra effort from followers through emphasis on change through articulating a new vision for the organization.
• Turnover. The rate at which employees leave a workforce and are replaced.
• Turnover intentions. Employees' thoughts about quitting their jobs.
• Two-factor theory. Relates to lower- and higher-order needs, and relates them to job satisfaction.
• Type A behavior. A behavior pattern characterized by hostility, time urgency, impatience, and a competitive drive.
• Type B behavior. A behavior pattern characterized by a relaxed demeanor, steady work habits, a noncompetitive nature, and a desire to be liked by others.
• Type C behavior. A behavior pattern characterized by predictability, loyalty, patience, thoughtfulness, an attention to detail, and seriousness.
• Type D behavior. A behavior pattern characterized by an aversion to leading, punctuality, contentment, and giving support to others.
• Underpayment inequity. The perception that a person's outcomes are not fair compared to another person's outcomes, given their inputs.
• Unfreezing. Challenges to the status quo through shaking up assumptions.
• Upward communication. The process by which employees communicate with others who are higher in the organizational hierarchy.
• Utilitarianism. Consideration of decisions that do the most good for the most people.
• Valences (Vs). The value an individual places on the rewards of an outcome (positive or negative).
• Variable. The timing of reinforcement varies.
• Vertical. Adding decision-making responsibility.
• Virtual teams. Defined as "functioning teams that rely on technology-mediated communication while crossing several different boundaries". (Martins, L. L., Gilson, L. L., & Maynard, M. T.; 2004; Virtual teams: What do we know and where do we go from here?; Journal of Management)
• Wheel network. All communication flows through one person who is most likely the group leader.
• Wicked organizational problems. Complex and changing decision scenarios.
• Workforce diversity. Sex, race/ethnicity, cultural differences, and age/generation as examples.
• Work-life balance. When work is compatible with participation in family life.
• Workout. A method for generating new ideas using employee participation and empowerment.
• Workplace aggression. Defined as overt physical or nonphysical behavior that harms others at work (e.g., yelling or pushing). (Neuman, J. H., & Baron, R. A.; 2005; Aggression in the workplace; Washington, DC; American Psychological Association)
• Workplace bullying. An emergent phenomenon; it refers to "a social interaction through which one individual (seldom more) is attacked by one or more (seldom more than four) individuals almost on a daily basis and for periods of many months, bringing the person into an almost helpless position with potentially high risk of expulsion". (Leymann, H.; 1996; The content and development of mobbing at work; European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology)
• Workplace incivility. Low intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm the target, in violation of workplace norms for mutual respect. Uncivil behaviors are characteristically rude and discourteous, displaying a lack of regard for others. (Andersson, L. M., & Pearson, C. M.; 1999; Tit-for-tat? The spiraling effect of incivility in the workplace; Academy of Management Review)
• Work redesign. Load jobs with more of the core characteristics that have been shown to motivate.
• Work-school conflict. Situations in which work conflicts with the family role and school role,.
• Work teams. A small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable.
• Y-pattern network. Slightly less centralized than the all-channel network since two persons are closer to the center of the network.
• Zone of indifference. The range in which attempts to influence a person will be perceived as legitimate and will be acted on without a great deal of thought.