Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior 6e by George, Jones

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Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior 6e by George, Jones is the 6th edition of the textbook authored by Jennifer M. George, Jesse H. Jones Graduate School of Business, Rice University, and Gareth R. Jones, Mays Business School, Texas A & M University, and published by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey in 2012.

  • 360-degree appraisal. A performance appraisal in which an employee's performance is evaluated by a number of people in a position to evaluate the employee's performance such as peers, superiors, subordinates, and customers or clients.
  • Ability. The mental or physical capacity to do something.
  • Accurate perceptions. Perceptions as close as possible to the true nature of the target of perception.
  • Action research. A strategy for generating and acquiring knowledge that managers can use to define an organization's desired future state and to plan a change program that allows the organization to reach that state.
  • Actor-observer effect. The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal causes and to attribute one's own behavior to external causes.
  • Administrative decision-making model. A descriptive approach stressing that incomplete information, psychological and sociological processes, and the decision maker's cognitive abilities affect decision making and that decision makers often choose satisfactory, not optimal, solutions.
  • Affective commitment. The commitment that exists when employees are happy to be members of an organization, believe in and feel good about the organization and what it stands for, are attached to the organization, and intend to do what is good for the organization.
  • Agreeableness. The tendency to get along well with others.
  • Anchoring and adjustment heuristic. The rule of thumb that says that decisions about how big or small an amount (such as a salary, budget, or level of costs) should be can be made by making adjustments from some initial amount.
  • Arbiter. A third party who has the authority to impose a solution to a dispute.
  • Attraction-selection-attrition framework (ASA framework). The idea that an organization attracts and selects individuals with similar personalities and loses individuals with other types of personalities.
  • Attribution. An explanation of the cause of behavior.
  • Attribution theory. A group of theories that describes how people explain the causes of behavior.
  • Authority. The power that enables one person to hold another person accountable for his or her actions.
  • Autonomy. The degree to which a job allows an employee the freedom and independence to schedule work and decide how to carry it out.
  • Availability heuristic. The rule of thumb that says an event that is easy to remember is likely to have occurred more frequently than an event that is difficult to remember.
  • Base rate. The actual frequency with which an event occurs.
  • Behavioral observation scale (BOS). A subjective measure on which the frequency with which an employee performs a behavior is indicated.
  • Behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS). A subjective measure on which specific work-related behaviors are evaluated.
  • Benchmarking. Selecting a high-performing group and using this group as a model.
  • Bias. A systematic tendency to use or interpret information in a way that results in inaccurate perceptions.
  • Bottom-up change. Change implemented by employees at low levels in the organization and gradually rises until it is felt throughout the organization.
  • Boundaryless career. A career not tied to a single organization and in which a person has a variety of kinds of work experiences in different organizations.
  • Bounded rationality. An ability to reason that is constrained by the limitations of the human mind.
  • Brainstorming. A spontaneous, participative decision-making technique that groups use to generate a wide range of alternatives from which to make a decision.
  • Burnout. Psychological, emotional, or physical exhaustion.
  • Business process. Any activity that is vital to the quick delivery of goods and services to customers or that promotes high quality or low costs.
  • Buyer's remorse. An emotional condition in which a person or group feels doubt and regret about a decision that involves the purchase or winning of some high-priced product.
  • Career. The sum of work-related experiences throughout a person's lifetime.
  • Career goals. The experiences, positions, or jobs that employees would like to have in the course of their careers.
  • Career plateau. A position from which the chances of obtaining a promotion or a job with more responsibility become very small.
  • Charismatic leader. A self-confident, enthusiastic leader able to win followers' respect and support for his or her vision of how good things could be.
  • Charismatic power. An intense form of referent power that stems from an individual's personality or physical or other abilities, which induce others to believe in and follow that person.
  • Classical decision-making model. A prescriptive approach based on the assumptions that the decision maker has all the necessary information and will choose the best possible solution or response.
  • Coalition. A group of managers who have similar interests and join forces to achieve their goals.
  • Code of ethics. A set of formal rules and standards, based on ethical values and beliefs about what is right and wrong, that employees can use to make appropriate decisions when the interests of other individuals or groups are at stake.
  • Coercive power. The power to give or withhold punishment.
  • Cognitive processes. Thought processes.
  • Command group. A formal work group consisting of subordinates who report to the same supervisor.
  • Communication. The sharing of information between two or more individuals or groups to reach a common understanding.
  • Communication network. The set of pathways through which information flows within a group or organization.
  • Comparable worth. The idea that jobs of equivalent value to an organization should carry the same pay rates regardless of differences in the work and the personal characteristics of the employee.
  • Compliance. Assenting to a norm in order to attain rewards or avoid punishment.
  • Conceptual skills. The ability to analyze and diagnose a situation and to distinguish between cause and effect.
  • Conscientiousness. The extent to which a person is careful, scrupulous, and persevering.
  • Consideration. Behavior indicating that a leader trusts, respects, and values good relationships with his or her followers.
  • Contingency theory. Organizational structure should be designed to match the set of contingencies -- factors or conditions -- that cause an organization the most uncertainty.
  • Contingency theory of leadership. The theory that leader effectiveness is determined by both the personal characteristics of leaders and by the situations in which leaders find themselves.
  • Contingent workers. People employed for temporary periods by an organization and who receive no benefits such as health insurance or pensions.
  • Contingent workers. Employees whom organizations hire or contract with on a temporary basis to fill needs for labor that change over time.
  • Continuance Commitment. The commitment that exists when it is very costly for employees to leave an organization.
  • Continuous-process technology. A method of production involving the use of automated machines working in sequence and controlled through computers from a central monitoring station.
  • Contrast effect. The biased perception that results when perceptions of a target person are distorted by the perceiver's perception of others.
  • Controlling. Monitoring and evaluating individual, group, and organizational performance to see whether organizational goals are being achieved.
  • Corporate management. The set of managers whose responsibility is to supervise and oversee the divisional managers.
  • Counterproductive work behaviors. Behaviors by an employee that violate organizational values and norms and that can potentially harm individuals and the organization.
  • Creativity. The generation of novel and useful ideas.
  • Decision making. The process by which members of an organization choose a specific course of action to respond to both opportunities and problems.
  • Decoding. Interpreting or trying to make sense of a sender's message.
  • Delphi technique. A decision-making technique in which a series of questionnaires are sent to experts on the issue at hand, though they never actually meet face to face.
  • Developmental consideration. Behavior by a leader that is supportive and encouraging toward followers and gives them opportunities to develop and grow on the job, such as by acquiring new skills and capabilities.
  • Deviance. Deviation from a norm.
  • Devil's advocate. A person willing to stand up and question the beliefs of more powerful people, resist influence attempts, and convince others that a planned course of action is flawed.
  • Distributive justice. The perceived fairness of the distribution of outcomes in an organization.
  • Devil's advocate. Someone who argues against a cause or position in order to determine its validity.
  • Diversity. Individual differences resulting from age, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic background.
  • Division. A group of functions created to allow an organization to produce and dispose of a particular kind of good or service to customers.
  • Division of labor. Dividing up work and assigning particular tasks to specific workers.
  • Divisional structure. A structure that groups employees into functions but who then focus their activities on making a particular product or serving a specific type of customer.
  • Downsizing. The process by which organizations lay off managers and workers to reduce costs.
  • Emotion-focused coping. The steps people take to deal with and control their stressful feelings and emotions.
  • Emotional dissonance. An internal state that exists when employees are expected to express feelings at odds with how the employees are actually feeling.
  • Emotional intelligence. The ability to understand and manage one's own feelings and emotions and the feelings and emotions of other people.
  • Emotional labor. The work employees perform to control their experience and expression of moods and emotions on the job.
  • Emotions. Intense short-lived feelings linked to a specific cause or antecedent.
  • Employee assistance programs (EAPs). Company-sponsored programs that provide employees with counseling and other kinds of professional help to deal with stressors such as alcohol and drug abuse and family problems.
  • Employee well-being. How happy, healthy, and prosperous employees are.
  • Empowerment. The process of giving employees throughout an organization the authority to make important decisions and to be responsible for their outcomes.
  • Empowerment. The process of giving employees throughout an organization the authority to make decisions and be responsible for their outcomes.
  • Encoding. Translating a message into symbols or language that a receiver can understand.
  • Equity theory. A theory about work motivation that focuses on employees' perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes and inputs.
  • Escalation of commitment. The tendency to invest additional time, money, or effort into what are essentially bad decisions or unproductive courses of action.
  • Ethical dilemma. The quandary managers experience when they have to decide if they should act in a way that might benefit other people or groups, and is the "right" thing to do, even though doing so might go against their own and their organization's interests.
  • Ethical values . One's personal convictions about what is right and wrong.
  • Ethics. The values, beliefs, and moral rules that managers and employees should use to analyze or interpret a situation and then decide what is the "right" or appropriate way to behave.
  • Expatriate managers. The people who work for a company overseas and are responsible for developing relationships with organizations in countries around the globe.
  • Expectancy. In expectancy theory, a perception about the extent to which effort will result in a certain level of performance.
  • Expectancy theory. A theory about work motivation that focuses on how employees make choices among alternative behaviors and levels of effort.
  • Experienced meaningfulness of the work. The degree to which employees feel their jobs are important, worthwhile, and meaningful.
  • Experienced responsibility for work outcomes. The extent to which employees feel personally responsible or accountable for their job performance.
  • Experiential learning. Learning that occurs by the direct involvement of the learner in the subject matter being learned (that is, learning by doing).
  • Expert power. Informal power that stems from superior ability or expertise.
  • Exploitation. Learning that involves organizational members finding ways to refine and improve existing organizational behaviors and procedures to increase effectiveness.
  • Exploration. Learning that involves organizational members searching for and experimenting with new kinds or forms of organizational behaviors and procedures to increase effectiveness.
  • External attributions. An attribution that assigns the cause of behavior to outside forces.
  • External change agent. An outside consultant who is an expert in managing change.
  • External locus of control. Describes people who believe that fate, luck, or outside forces are responsible for what happens to them.
  • Extinction. The lessening of undesired behavior by removing the source of reinforcement.
  • Extraversion. The tendency to experience positive emotional states and feel good about oneself and the world around one; also called positive affectivity.
  • Extrinsic work values. Work values related to the consequences of work.
  • Extrinsically motivated work behavior. Behavior performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment.
  • Evolutionary change. Change that is gradual, incremental, and narrowly focused.
  • Feedback. The extent to which performing a job provides an employee with clear information about his or her effectiveness.
  • Filtering. A sender's withholding part of a message because the sender thinks the receiver does not need or will not want to receive the information.
  • Force-field theory. The theory that organizational change occurs when forces for change strengthen, resistance to change lessens, or both occur simultaneously.
  • Formal individual power. Power that originates from a person's position in an organization.
  • Formal leader. A member of an organization who is given authority by the organization to influence other organizational members to achieve organizational goals.
  • Formal work group. A group established by management to help the organization achieve its goals.
  • Formalization. The use of rules and standard operating procedures to control an organization's activities.
  • Friendship group. An informal work group consisting of people who enjoy each other's company and socialize with each other on and off the job.
  • Freelancers. People who contract with an organization to perform specific services.
  • Function. A group of people who perform the same types of tasks or hold similar positions in an organization.
  • Functional structure. An organizational structure that groups together people who hold similar positions, perform a similar set of tasks, or use the same kinds of skills.
  • Fundamental attribution error. The tendency to overattribute behavior to internal rather than to external causes.
  • Geographic structure. A division organizational structure that groups functions by region so that each division contains the functions it needs to service customers in a specific geographic area.
  • Global learning. The process of acquiring and learning the skills, knowledge, and organizational behaviors and procedures that have helped companies abroad become major global competitors.
  • Global organizations. Companies that produce or sell their products in countries and regions throughout the world.
  • Goal. What an individual is trying to accomplish through his or her behavior and actions.
  • Goal-setting theory. A theory that focuses on identifying the types of goals that are most effective in producing high levels of motivation and performance and why goals have these effects.
  • Grapevine. A set of informal communication pathways through which unofficial information flows.
  • Graphic rating scale. A subjective measure on which performance is evaluated along a continuum.
  • Group. Two or more people who interact to achieve their goals.
  • Group. A set of two or more people who interact with each other to achieve certain goals or to meet certain needs.
  • Group cohesiveness. The attractiveness of a group to its members.
  • Group efficacy. The shared belief group members have about the ability of the group to achieve its goals and objectives.
  • Group function. The work a group performs as its contribution to the accomplishment of organizational goals.
  • Group norms. Informal rules of conduct for behaviors considered important by most group members.
  • Group goal. A goal that all or most members of a group can agree on as a common goal.
  • Group status. The implicitly agreed upon, perceived importance for the organization as a whole of what a group does.
  • Groupthink. A pattern of faulty decision making that occurs in cohesive groups whose members strive for agreement at the expense of accurately assessing information relevant to the decision.
  • Halo effect. The biased perception that results when the perceiver's general impression of a target distorts his or her perception of the target on specific dimensions.
  • Heterogeneous group. A group in which members have few characteristics in common.
  • Heuristics. Rules of thumb that simplify decision making.
  • Hierarchy of authority. An organization's chain of command that defines the relative authority of each level of management.
  • Homogeneous group. A group in which members have many characteristics in common.
  • Hostile work environment sexual harassment. Creating or maintaining a work environment that is offensive, intimidating, or hostile because of a person's sex.
  • Human skills. The ability to understand, work with, lead, and control the behavior of other people and groups.
  • Identification. Associating oneself with supporters of a norm and conforming to the norm because those individuals do.
  • Idiosyncrasy credit. The freedom to violate group norms without being punished that is accorded to group members who have contributed a lot to the group in the past.
  • Impression management. An attempt to control the perceptions or impressions of others.
  • Individual differences. The ways in which people differ from each other.
  • Individualized role orientation. A role orientation in which newcomers are taught that it is acceptable and desirable to be creative and to experiment with changing how the group does things.
  • Informal individual power. Power that stems from personal characteristics such as personality, skills, and capabilities.
  • Informal leader. An organizational member with no formal authority to influence others who nevertheless is able to exert considerable influence because of special skills or talents.
  • Informal work group. A group that emerges naturally when individuals perceive that membership in a group will help them achieve their goals or meet their needs.
  • Information. A set of data, facts, numbers, and words that has been organized in such a way that it provides its users with knowledge.
  • Information distortion. The change in meaning that occurs when a message travels through a series of different senders to a receiver.
  • Information power. The power that stems from access to and control over information.
  • Information richness. The amount of information a medium of communication can carry and the extent to which it enables senders and receivers to reach a common understanding.
  • Information technology. The many different kinds of computer and communications hardware and software, and the skills of their designers, programmers, managers, and technicians.
  • Informational justice. Employee perceptions of the extent to which managers explain their decisions and the procedures they used to arrive at these decisions.
  • Initiating structure. Behaviors that a leader engages in to make sure that work gets done and subordinates perform their jobs acceptably.
  • Innovation. The successful implementation of creative ideas.
  • Institutionalized role orientation. A role orientation in which newcomers are taught to respond to situations in the same way that existing group members respond to similar situations.
  • Instrumental value. A desired mode or type of behavior that people seek to follow.
  • Instrumentality. In expectancy theory, a perception about the extent to which performance of one or more behaviors will lead to the attainment of a particular outcome.
  • Integrating mechanisms. Organizing tools used to increase communication and coordination among functions and divisions.
  • Interest group. An informal work group consisting of people who come together because they have a common goal or objective related to their organizational membership.
  • Intergroup training. An OD technique that uses team building to improve the work interactions of different functions or divisions.
  • Internal attribution. An attribution that assigns the cause of behavior to some characteristic of the target.
  • Internal change agent. A manager from within an organization who is knowledgeable about the situation to be changed.
  • Internal locus of control. Describes people who believe that ability, effort, or their own actions determine what happens to them.
  • Internalization. Believing that the behavior dictated by a norm is truly the right and proper way to behave.
  • Internet. The global network of interlinked computers.
  • Intranet. A companywide computer network.
  • Interpersonal justice. The perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment employees receive from the distributors of outcomes or their managers.
  • Intranets. A network of information technology linkages inside an organization that connects all its members.
  • Intrinsic work values. Work values related to the nature of work itself.
  • Intrinsically motivated work behavior. Behavior performed for its own sake.
  • Jargon. Specialized terminology or language that members of a group develop to aid communication among themselves.
  • Job characteristics model. An approach to job design that aims to identify characteristics that make jobs intrinsically motivating and the consequences of those characteristics.
  • Job crafting. Employees proactively modifying the tasks that comprise their jobs, how they view their jobs, and/or who they interact with while performing their jobs.
  • Job design. The process of linking specific tasks to specific jobs and deciding what techniques, equipment, and procedures should be used to perform those tasks.
  • Job enlargement. Increasing the number of tasks an employee performs but keeping all of the tasks at the same level of difficulty and responsibility; also called horizontal job loading.
  • Job enrichment. Increasing an employee's responsibility and control over his or her work; also called vertical job loading.
  • Job facet . One of numerous components of a job.
  • Job rotation. Assigning employees to different jobs on a regular basis.
  • Job satisfaction. The collection of feelings and beliefs people have about their current jobs.
  • Job simplification. The breaking up of the work that needs to be performed in an organization into the smallest identifiable tasks.
  • Job specialization. The assignment of employees to perform small, simple tasks.
  • Justice values. Values that dictate that decisions should be made in ways that allocate benefit and harm among those affected by the decisions in a fair, equitable, or impartial manner.
  • Knowledge. What a person perceives, recognizes, identifies, or discovers from analyzing data and information.
  • Knowledge-of-predictor bias. The biased perception that results when knowing a target's standing on a predictor of performance influences the perceiver's perception of the target.
  • Knowledge of results. The degree to which employees know how well they perform their jobs on a continuous basis.
  • Leader. An individual able to influence group or organizational members to help the group or organization achieve its goals.
  • Leader-member exchange theory. A theory that describes the different kinds of relationships that may develop between a leader and a follower and what the leader and the follower give to and receive back from the relationship.
  • Leader-member relations. The relationships between a leader and his or her followers.
  • Leader punishing behavior. A leader's negative response to subordinates' undesired behavior.
  • Leader reward behavior. A leader's positive reinforcement of subordinates' desirable behavior.
  • Leadership. The exercise of influence by one member of a group or organization over other members to help the group or organization achieve its goals.
  • Leadership neutralizer. Something that prevents a leader from having any influence and negates a leader's efforts.
  • Leadership substitute. Something that acts in place of a formal leader and makes leadership unnecessary.
  • Leading. Encouraging and coordinating individuals and groups so that all organizational members are working to achieve organizational goals.
  • Learning. A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience.
  • Learning organization. An organization that purposefully takes steps to enhance and maximize the potential for explorative and exploitative organizational learning to take place.
  • Least preferred co-employee scale. A questionnaire that measures leader style by scoring leaders' responses to questions about the co-employee with whom they have the most difficulty working.
  • Legitimate power. The power to control and use organizational resources to accomplish organizational goals.
  • Liaison roles. A permanent managerial position in which the manager's only role is to coordinate the activities of different divisions.
  • Linguistic style. A person's characteristic way of speaking.
  • Management by objectives (MBO). A goal-setting process in which a manager meets with his or her supervisor to set goals and evaluate the extent to which previously set goals have been achieved.
  • Management. The process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling an organization's human, financial, material, and other resources to increase its effectiveness.
  • Managers. Persons who supervise the activities of one or more employees.
  • Market structure. A divisional organizational structure that groups functions by types of customers so that each division contains the functions it needs to service a specific segment of the market.
  • Mass-production technology. A method of production using automated machines programmed to perform the same operations time and time again.
  • Matrix structure. An organizational structure that simultaneously groups people by function and by product team.
  • Mechanistic structure. An organizational structure designed to induce employees to behave in predictable, accountable ways.
  • Mediator. A neutral third party who tries to help parties in conflict reconcile their differences.
  • Medium. The pathway through which an encoded message is transmitted to a receiver.
  • Mentoring. A process through which an experienced member of an organization (the mentor) provides advice and guidance to a lessexperienced member (the protégé) and helps the less-experienced person learn the ropes and do the right things to advance in the organization.
  • Merit pay plan. A plan that bases pay on performance.
  • Message. The information that a sender needs or wants to share with other people.
  • Moral rights values. Values that dictate that decisions should be made so that the decisions produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
  • Motivating potential score (MPS). A measure of the overall potential of a job to foster intrinsic motivation.
  • Mutual adjustment. The ongoing informal communication among different people and functions that is necessary for an organization to achieve its goals.
  • National culture. The set of values or beliefs that a society considers important and the norms of behavior that are approved or sanctioned in that society.
  • Nature. Biological heritage, genetic makeup.
  • Need. A requirement for survival and well-being.
  • Need for achievement. The desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet one's own high standards.
  • Need for affiliation. The desire to establish and maintain good relations with others.
  • Need for power. The desire to exert emotional and behavioral control or influence over others.
  • Need theory. A group of theories about work motivation that focuses on employees' needs as the sources of motivation.
  • Negative reinforcement. Reinforcement that increases the probability of a desired behavior by removing a negative consequence when an employee performs the behavior.
  • Negotiation. A process in which groups with conflicting interests meet together to make offers, counteroffers, and concessions to each other in an effort to resolve their differences.
  • Network structure. A structural arrangement whereby companies outsource one or more of their functional activities to other specialist companies.
  • Neuroticism. The tendency to experience negative emotional states and view oneself and the world around one negatively; also called negative affectivity.
  • Noise. Anything that interferes with the communication process.
  • Nonverbal communication. The sharing of information by means of facial expressions, body language, and mode of dress.
  • Nonprogrammed decision making. Decision making in response to novel opportunities and problems.
  • Nominal group technique (NGT). A decision-making technique that includes the following steps: group members generate ideas on their own and write them down, group members communicate their ideas to the rest of the group, and each idea is then discussed and critically evaluated by the group.
  • Nurture. Life experiences.
  • Objective measures. Measures based on facts.
  • Open system. Organizations that take in resources from their external environments and convert or transform them into goods and services that are sent back to their environments where customers buy them.
  • Openness to experience. The extent to which a person is original, has broad interests, and is willing to take risks.
  • Operant conditioning. Learning that takes place when the learner recognizes the connection between a behavior and its consequences.
  • Operation costs. The costs associated with managing an organization.
  • Organic structure. An organizational structure designed to promote flexibility so that employees can initiate change and adapt quickly to changing conditions.
  • Organization. A collection of people who work together and coordinate their actions to achieve individual and organizational goals.
  • Organization change. The movement of an organization away from its present state and toward some desired future state to increase its effectiveness.
  • Organizational behavior. The study of factors that affect how individuals and groups act in organizations and how organizations respond to their environments.
  • Organizational behavior modification (OB MOD). The systematic application of the principles of operant conditioning for teaching and managing important organizational behaviors.
  • Organizational citizenship behavior. Behavior that is not required but is necessary for organizational survival and effectiveness.
  • Organizational commitment. The collection of feelings and beliefs people have about their organization as a whole.
  • Organizational conflict. The struggle that arises when the goaldirected behavior of one person or group blocks the goal-directed behavior of another person or group.
  • Organizational confrontation meeting. An OD technique that brings together all of the managers of an organization to confront the issue of whether the organization is effectively meeting its goals.
  • Organizational culture. The set of shared values, beliefs, and norms that influences the way employees think, feel, and behave toward each other and toward people outside the organization.
  • Organizational design. The process by which managers select and manage various dimensions and components of organizational structure and culture so that an organization can achieve its goals.
  • Organizational development (OD). A series of techniques and methods that managers can use in their action research program to increase the adaptability of their organization.
  • Organizational effectiveness. The ability of an organization to achieve its goals.
  • Organizational ethics. The moral values, beliefs, and rules that establish the appropriate way for an organization and its members to deal with each other and with people outside the organization.
  • Organizational justice. An employee's perception of overall fairness in his or her organization.
  • Organizational inertia. The tendency of an organization to maintain the status quo.
  • Organizational learning. The process through which managers instill in all members of an organization a desire to find new ways to improve organizational effectiveness.
  • Organizational learning. The process of managing information and knowledge to achieve a better fit between the organization and its environment.
  • Organizational learning. The process through which managers seek to increase organization members' desire and ability to make decisions that continuously raise organizational efficiency and effectiveness.
  • Organizational mirroring. An OD technique in which a facilitator helps two interdependent groups explore their perceptions and relations in order to improve their work interactions.
  • Organizational objectives. The overarching purpose of an organization, what it stands for, and what it seeks to accomplish.
  • Organizational politics. Activities in which managers engage to increase their power and to pursue goals that favor their individual and group interests.
  • Organizational procedure. A rule or routine an employee follows to perform some task in the most effective way.
  • Organizational structure. The formal system of task and reporting relationships that controls, coordinates, and motivates employees so that they cooperate and work together to achieve an organization's goals.
  • Organizational support. The extent to which an organization cares about the well-being of its members, tries to help them when they have a problem, and treats them fairly.
  • Organizing. Establishing a structure of relationships that dictates how members of an organization work together to achieve organizational goals.
  • Outcome/input ratio. In equity theory, the relationship between what an employee gets from a job (outcomes) and what the employee contributes to the job (inputs).
  • Outsourcing. The process of employing people, groups, or a specialist organization to perform a specific type of work activity or function previously performed inside an organization.
  • Overload. The condition of having too many tasks to perform.
  • Overpayment inequity. The inequity that exists when a person perceives that his or her outcome/input ratio is greater than the ratio of a referent.
  • Path-goal theory. A theory that describes how leaders can motivate their followers to achieve group and organizational goals and the kinds of behaviors leaders can engage in to motivate followers.
  • Perceiver's mood. How a perceiver feels at the time of perception.
  • Perceiver's motivational state. The needs, values, and desires of a perceiver at the time of perception.
  • Perception. The process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret the input from their senses.
  • Performance appraisal. Evaluating performance to encourage employee motivation and performance and to provide information to be used in managerial decision making.
  • Performance program. A standard sequence of behaviors that organizational members follow routinely whenever they encounter a particular type of problem or opportunity.
  • Personality. The pattern of relatively enduring ways that a person feels, thinks, and behaves.
  • Persuasive communication. The attempt by one person or group to transmit and share information with another person or group to get them to accept, agree with, follow, and seek to achieve the formers' goals and objectives.
  • Planning. Deciding how best to allocate and use resources to achieve organizational goals.
  • Political decision making. Decision making characterized by active disagreement over which organizational goals to pursue and how to pursue them.
  • Pooled task interdependence. The task interdependence that results when each member of a group makes a separate and independent contribution to group performance.
  • Position power. The amount of formal authority a leader has.
  • Positive reinforcement. Reinforcement that increases the probability of a desired behavior by administering positive consequences to employees who perform the behavior.
  • Potential performance. The highest level of performance a group is capable of achieving at a given point in time.
  • Power. The ability of one person or group to cause another person or group to do something they otherwise might not have done.
  • Primacy effect. The biased perception that results when the first information that a perceiver has about a target has an inordinately large influence on the perceiver's perception of the target.
  • Problem-focused coping. The steps people take to deal directly with and act on the source of stress.
  • Procedural justice. The perceived fairness of the procedures used to make decisions about the distribution of outcomes in an organization.
  • Process consultation. An OD technique in which a facilitator works closely with a manager on the job to help the manager improve his or her interaction with other group members.
  • Process losses. Performance difficulties a group experiences because of coordination and motivation problems.
  • Process gains. Increases in potential performance that result from new ways of motivating and coordinating group members.
  • Product champion. An expert manager appointed to head a new product team and lead a new product from its beginning to commercialization.
  • Product structure. A divisional organizational structure that groups functions by types of product so that each division contains the functions it needs to service the products it produces.
  • Production blocking. Loss of productivity in brainstorming groups due to various distractions and limitations inherent to brainstorming.
  • Programmed decision making. Decision making in response to recurring opportunities and problems.
  • Psychological contract. An employee's perception of his or her exchange relationship with an organization, outcomes the organization has promised to provide to the employee, and contributions the employee is obligated to make to the organization.
  • Punishment. The administration of a negative consequence when undesired behavior occurs.
  • Quality circles. Groups of employees who meet regularly to discuss the way work is performed in order to find new ways to increase performance.
  • Quid pro quo sexual harassment. Requesting or forcing an employee to perform sexual favors in order to receive some opportunity (such as a raise, a promotion, a bonus, or a special job assignment) or avoid a negative consequence (such as demotion, dismissal, a halt to career progress, or an undesired assignment or transfer).
  • Realistic job preview. An honest assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of a particular job and working in a particular organization.
  • Reciprocal task interdependence. The task interdependence that results when the activities of all work-group members are fully dependent on one another.
  • Receiver. The individual, group, or organization for which information is intended.
  • Referent power. Informal power that stems from being liked, admired, and respected.
  • Reinforcement. The process by which the probability that a desired behavior will occur is increased by applying consequences that depend on the behavior.
  • Representativeness heuristic. The rule of thumb that says similar kinds of events that happened in the past are a good predictor of the likelihood of an upcoming event.
  • Research and development team (R&D team). A team formed to develop new products, may be cross-functional, and is often used in high-tech industries.
  • Reward power. The power to give pay raises, promotion, praise, interesting projects, and other rewards to subordinates.
  • Revolutionary change. Change that is rapid, dramatic, and broadly focused.
  • Role. A set of behaviors or tasks a person is expected to perform because of the position he or she holds in a group or organization.
  • Role ambiguity. The uncertainty that occurs when employees are not sure what is expected of them and how they should perform their jobs.
  • Role conflict. The struggle that occurs when the behaviors or tasks a person is expected to perform are at odds with each other.
  • Role making. Taking the initiative to create a role by assuming responsibilities that are not part of an assigned role.
  • Role negotiation. The process through which employees actively try to change their roles in order to reduce role conflict, role ambiguity, overload, or underload.
  • Role orientation. The characteristic way in which members of a group respond to various situations.
  • Role relationships. The ways in which group and organizational members interact with one another to perform their specific roles.
  • Role taking. Performing the responsibilities required as part of an assigned role.
  • Rumor. Unofficial information on topics that are important or interesting to an organization's members.
  • Salience. The extent to which a target of perception stands out in a group of people or things.
  • Satisficing. Searching for and choosing an acceptable response or solution, not necessarily the best possible one.
  • Schema. An abstract knowledge structure stored in memory that makes possible the organization and interpretation of information about a target of perception.
  • Scientific management. A set of principles and practices designed to increase the performance of individual employees by stressing job simplification and specialization.
  • Self-control. Self-discipline that allows a person to learn to perform a behavior even though there is no external pressure to do so.
  • Self-efficacy. A person's belief about his or her ability to perform a particular behavior successfully.
  • Self-esteem. The extent to which people have pride in themselves and their capabilities.
  • Self-fulfilling prophecy. A prediction that comes true because a perceiver expects it to come true.
  • Self-managed teams. Groups of employees who are given the authority and responsibility to manage many different aspects of their own organizational behavior.
  • Self-managed work team. A formal work group consisting of people who are jointly responsible for ensuring that the team accomplishes its goals and who lead themselves.
  • Self-monitoring. The extent to which people try to control the way they present themselves to others.
  • Self-reinforcers. Consequences or rewards that individuals can give to themselves.
  • Self-serving attribution. The tendency to take credit for successes and avoid blame for failures.
  • Sender. The individual, group, or organization that needs or wants to share information with some other individual, group, or organization.
  • Sensitivity training. An OD technique that consists of intense counseling in which group members, aided by a facilitator, learn how others perceive them and may learn how to deal more sensitively with others.
  • Sequential task interdependence. The task interdependence that results when group members must perform specific behaviors in a predetermined order.
  • Shaping. The reinforcement of successive and closer approximations to a desired behavior.
  • Skunk works. An R&D team created to expedite new product design and promote innovation in an organization.
  • Small-batch technology. A method used to produce small quantities of customized, one-of-a-kind products based on the skills of people who work together in small groups.
  • Social cognitive theory. A learning theory that takes into account the fact that thoughts, feelings, and the social environment influence learning.
  • Social facilitation. The effects that the presence of others has on performance, enhancing the performance of easy tasks and impairing the performance of difficult tasks.
  • Social identity theory. A theory that describes how individuals use the groups and organizations they are members of to define themselves.
  • Social influence. The influence individuals or groups have on a person's attitudes and behavior.
  • Social information processing model. An approach to job design based on the idea that information from other people and employees' own past behaviors influence employees' perceptions of and responses to the design of their jobs.
  • Social loafing. The tendency of individuals to exert less effort when they work in a group than when they work alone.
  • Social responsibility. An organization's obligations toward people or groups directly affected by its actions.
  • Social status. A person's real or perceived position in society or in an organization.
  • Socialization. The process by which newcomers learn the roles, rules, and norms of a group.
  • Sociotechnical systems theory. Ideas about how organizations should choose specific kinds of control systems that match the technical nature of the work process.
  • Span of control. The number of employees who report to a specific manager.
  • Skill. An ability to act in a way that allows a person to perform well in his or her role.
  • Skill variety. The extent to which a job requires an employee to use different skills, abilities, or talents.
  • Standardization. The development of routine responses to recurring problems or opportunities.
  • Stereotype. A set of overly simplified and often inaccurate beliefs about the typical characteristics of a particular group.
  • Stress. The experience of opportunities or threats that people perceive as important and also perceive they might not be able to handle or deal with effectively.
  • Stressor. A source of stress.
  • Subjective measures. Measures based on individual perceptions.
  • Sucker effect. A condition in which some group members, not wishing to be considered suckers, reduce their own efforts when they see social loafing by other group members.
  • Sunk costs. Costs that cannot be reversed and will not be affected by subsequent decision making.
  • Synergy. A process gain that occurs when members of a group acting together are able to produce more or better output than would have been produced by the combined efforts of each person acting alone.
  • Task force. A formal work group consisting of people who come together to accomplish a specific goal.
  • Task identity. The extent to which a job involves performing a whole piece of work from its beginning to its end.
  • Task interdependence. The extent to which the work performed by one member of a group affects what other members do.
  • Task significance. The extent to which a job has an impact on the lives or work of other people in or out of the organization.
  • Task structure. The extent to which the work to be performed by a group is clearly defined.
  • Team. A group in which members work together intensively and develop team specific routines to achieve a common group goal.
  • Team. A formal work group consisting of people who work intensely together to achieve a common group goal.
  • Team building. An OD technique in which a facilitator first observes the interactions of group members and then helps them become aware of ways to improve their work interactions.
  • Technical skills. Job-specific knowledge and techniques.
  • Technology. The combination of skills, knowledge, tools, machines, computers, and equipment used in the design, production, and distribution of goods and services.
  • Telecommuting. A work arrangement whereby employees are employed by an organization and have an agreement that enables them to work out of their homes regularly but not necessarily all the time.
  • Terminal values. A desired end state or outcome that people seek to achieve.
  • Third-party negotiator. An outsider skilled in handling bargaining and negotiation.
  • Time and motion studies. Studies that reveal exactly how long it takes to perform a task and the best way to perform it.
  • Time management. Prioritizing and estimating techniques that allow employees to identify the most important tasks and fit them into their daily schedule.
  • Top-down change. Change implemented by managers at a high level in the organization.
  • Top management team. The team of managers who report to the chief executive officer (CEO) and determine what an organization is trying to accomplish and develop plans for goal attainment.
  • Top-management teams. High-ranking executives who plan a company's strategy so that the company can achieve its goals.
  • Total quality management (TQM) or Kaizen. An ongoing and constant effort by all of an organization's functions to find new ways to improve the quality of the organization's goods and services.
  • Trait. A specific component of personality.
  • Transactional leadership. Leadership that motivates followers by exchanging rewards for high performance and noticing and reprimanding subordinates for mistakes and substandard performance.
  • Transformational leadership. Leadership that inspires followers to trust the leader, perform behaviors that contribute to the achievement of organizational goals, and perform at high levels.
  • Trust. An expression of confidence in another person or group of people that you will not be put at risk, harmed, or injured by their actions.
  • Trust. The willingness of one person or group to have faith or confidence in the goodwill of another person, even though this puts them at risk.
  • Turnover. The permanent withdrawal of an employee from the employing organization.
  • Type A. A person who has an intense desire to achieve, is extremely competitive, and has a strong sense of urgency.
  • Type B. A person who tends to be easygoing and relaxed.
  • Utilitarian values. Values that dictate that decisions should be made that generate the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
  • Underload. The condition of having too few tasks to perform.
  • Underpayment inequity. The inequity that exists when a person perceives that his or her outcome/input ratio is less than the ratio of a referent.
  • Valence. In expectancy theory, the desirability of an outcome to an individual.
  • Values . One's personal convictions about what one should strive for in life and how one should behave.
  • Values. General criteria, standards, or guiding principles that people use to determine which types of behaviors, events, situations, and outcomes are desirable or undesirable.
  • Verbal communication. The sharing of information by means of words, either spoken or written.
  • Vicarious learning. Learning that occurs when one person learns a behavior by watching another person perform the behavior.
  • Virtual organization. A company that operates largely using new information technology where people and functions are linked through company Intranets and databases.
  • Virtual team. A group whose members work together intensively via electronic means, and who may never actually meet.
  • Virtual team. A team in which a significant amount of communication and interaction occurs electronically rather than face to face.
  • Vroom and Yetton model. A model that describes the different ways in which leaders can make decisions and guides leaders in determining the extent to which subordinates should participate in decision making.
  • Well-being. The condition of being happy, healthy, and prosperous.
  • Whistleblower. A person who informs people in positions of authority and/or the public of instances of wrongdoing, illegal behavior, or unethical behavior in an organization.
  • Whistle-blowing. When an employee decides to inform an outside person or agency about illegal or unethical managerial behavior.
  • World Wide Web. A global store of information that contains the products of most kinds of human knowledge such as writing, music, and art.
  • Work attitudes. Collections of feelings, beliefs, and thoughts about how to behave in one's job and organization.
  • Work mood. How people feel at the time they actually perform their jobs.
  • Work situation. The work itself, working conditions, and all other aspects of the job and the employing organization.
  • Work motivation. The psychological forces that determine the direction of a person's behavior in an organization, a person's level of effort, and a person's level of persistence.
  • Work values. An employee's personal convictions about what outcomes one should expect from work and how one should behave at work.
  • Workplace incivility. Rude interpersonal behaviors reflective of a lack of regard and respect for others.
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